TCNJ Bio 171 Final Exam Objectives, questions and answers | latest updated

TCNJ Bio 171 Final Exam Objectives, questions and answers | latest updated Summarize the steps of the scientific method Observation Question Hypothesis Prediction Experiment Analyze results Repeat How do the traits of science and philosophy differ? - Science makes progress over time, philosophy does not - S generates agreement over time, P does not -S involves collaborations among practitioners, P does not Identify the social, theoretical, and practical influences that limited the ways that scientists and physicians approached understanding the heart through history. - Many religions were against the cutting open of human bodies - No technology - No one learned about the previous findings unless they had access to the books, drawings, etc. List some (at least 2) of the misconceptions about evolution. 1. Individuals evolve within their lifetime - evolution is the change of a POPULATIONS composition over GENERATIONS 2. Evolution explains the origin of life - Evolution DOES NOT shed light on the beginnings of life / origins of the first cells State the two or more of major principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection 1. There is heritable variation (different genes) in traits among individuals of most natural populations 2. Populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support 3. Some versions of the genes serve fitness better (success of survival and reproduction) 4. Genetic composition of populations change over time allopatric speciation - Involves geographic separations of populations from a parent species and subsequent evolution SLOW PROCESS Ex: If 2 rodent populations were separated by a lake, speciation would be more likely Sympatric speciation Involves speciation occurring within a parent species remaining in one location RAPID PROCESS - Cellular level Define phylogeny and give an example of some phylogenetic relationships in animals (can be vertebrates, amniotes, mammals, insects, Covid-19 - whatever interests you the most). Phylogeny: The evolutionary history and relationship of an organism / group of organisms Ex: Evolution of the eyes of mollusks. Some just have pinhole eyes, others have eyes with primitive lens, and octopi have more sophisticated / complex eyes Describe two characteristics/properties of all living things, including humans survival and reproduction Describe at least one property of water that is involved in maintaining life. Water is cohesive - it is sticky with itself. It is also adhesive, meaning it's attracted to other molecules. Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For instance, because of these forces, water can flow up from the roots to the tops of plants and feed the plants. Water forms a solid (ice floats) that is less dense than the liquid List the four major biological molecules and one function of each. Carbohydrates - energy storage Lipids - provide insulation Proteins - can function as enzymes or hormones that act to control and regulate physiological processes Nucleic acids - information storage and transfer Describe the different levels of protein structure and how that changes upon denaturation. Primary - monomers linked via covalent bond Secondary - polypeptide folded via polar non-covalent bonds Tertiary - the "3D" structure of a polypeptide Quaternary - Interaction of the subunits If the quaternary protein structure becomes denatured, then it returns back to the primary structure. During denaturation due to a change in temperature, for example, the protein structure changes and loses its shape. Describe in words or diagrammatically the central dogma of the conversion of the DNA code into an organisms' phenome and be able to name the processes (transcription and translation) involved. DNA encodes RNA, which in turn codes protein DNA (transcription in the nucleus) RNA (translation in the cytoplasm) Protein Describe the two major components (biomolecules) of viruses and compare enveloped to non-enveloped viruses. Viruses are essentially cores of nucleic acid coated with an outer protein layer. Enveloped viruses have a plasma membrane while non-enveloped viruses do not have a plasma membrane, just nucleic acid and protein. Describe the three (or more) of the steps involved in the influenza life cycle shown in figure 21.8 (COVID-19 is an influenza virus). Attach to receptor, virus gets inside the cell (engulfed and enter), goes into cytoplasm, release of nucleic acid/making of proteins for the virus, replicate the nucleic acid and make more viral particles, release. Describe the different steps within the central dogma and after where gene expression can be modified. DNA RNA (transcriptional regulation) mRNA protein (Translational regulation) Protein amino acid (protease regulation). Describe how mutations and population genetics make cancer treatment a challenge. Cancer cells have a high mutation rate and are difficult to control. They can mutate so that they are resistant to anti-cancer drugs. Describe what happens to the cell when it does not "check" out. Essentially, the cell is always halted and the processes cannot progress until the conditions improve and the cell completes whatever requirements need to be fulfilled. Explain the role of proto-oncogenes in the cell cycle and oncogenes role in cancer. Proto-oncogenes code for the positive cell cycle regulators. They help the cycle to progress. In cancer, they can lead to unregulated cell growth. Oncogenes cause a cell to become cancerous. Happens when a proto-oncogene is mutated in certain ways. Explain the role of tumor suppressor genes in the cell cycle and how mutations in these genes result in cancer. Tumor suppressor genes are negative regulator proteins that stop the cycle. A mutated form of a negative regulator might not be able to halt the cell cycle if there is a problem. Mutation: protein does not work and can no longer suppress cancer development. Describe the two general types of receptors based upon location in the cell. Receptors that are located in the cytosol or nucleus that bind lipid-based (hydrophobic, can diffuse through the membrane) hormones. Receptors that are located in the plasma membrane that bind amino-acid based (hydrophilic, cannot diffuse through the membrane) hormones Describe the four major tissue types Epithelial tissue - covers inside and outside of the body. Example: Major component of skin. Connective tissue - fibrous and connects tissues together and provides support. Forms tendons and ligaments Muscle tissue - moves the body and moves things inside the body Nervous tissue - Senses, integrates and communicates with other cells. The cells generate and conduct impulses Explain role of different types of epithelia tissues in organs. Squamous epithelial cells - form coverings / linings. Protection! Cuboidal epithelial cells - SECRETION AND ABSORPTION Columnar epithelial cells - SECRETION AND ABSORPTION Transitional epithelial cells - lines the urinary tract. this layer unfolds and expands to hold the volume of urine introduced into it and the lining thins. Describe the different types of connective tissue in relation to structure and function. Areolar tough, yet flexible, and comprises membranes. Helps to keep blood vessels in place. Fibrous contain large amounts of collagen fibers and few cells or matrix material. Found in areas of the body where stress occurs from all directions, such as tendons and ligaments Cartilage has a large amount of the matrix and variable amounts of fibers. Allows for the ability to enhance bone resilience, and provide support on bony areas where flexibility is necessary. Bone has a large amount of organic and inorganic matrix. This allows for strength and flexibility. Forms the internal skeleton of vertebrate animals, providing structure and points of attachment for tendons. Adipose is made up of cells that collect and store fat for energy metabolism. They serve as insulation to help maintain body temperatures (endothermic) Blood has plasma and no fibers. RBCs are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. WBCs are involved in immune response Describe the different types of muscle tissue in relation to organ function. Smooth muscle - Moves food and gametes Skeletal muscle - found in the muscles that move bones. Moves the body about. Cardiac muscle - found only in the heart. Moves blood about. Describe an example of negative feedback involved in homeostasis. Negative feedback loop - any homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus. If a level is too high, the body does something to bring it down, and if a level is too low, the body does something to make it go up. Example: Animal maintenance of blood glucose levels. When an animal has eaten, the level rises. This is sensed by the nervous system and the pancreas. Insulin is released by the endocrine system and blood glucose levels decrease Describe an example of positive feedback in terms of population homeostasis. Positive feedback loop - maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating it. Example: Uterine contractions during childbirth. Define the scientific fields of anatomy and physiology Anatomy - The scientific study of the body's structures Physiology - The scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life Describe the sub-fields of anatomy and physiology Gross anatomy - the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification (ex: the brain) Microscopic anatomy: the study of the structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices (Ex: tissues, cells, etc.) Neurophysiology - the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions like vision, movement, and thinking Explain how the fields of anatomy and physiology are intertwined. Form is closely related to function in all living things. It can be frustrating to attempt to study anatomy without an understanding of the physiology that a body structure supports. (Ex: Understanding how the human hand works helps you to appreciate how the thumb is uniquely aligned in opposition to the four fingers) Describe at least one organ system and at least two of its functions. The skeletal system is made up of cartilage, bones, and joints. It supports the body and enables movement (with muscular system) The muscular system is made up of skeletal muscles and tendons. It enables movement (with skeletal system) and helps to maintain body temperature Describe the different functions of the body required for human life. Organization Metabolism Responsiveness - The ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environments Movement Development Reproduction Describe the two different types of metabolism. Anabolism - Smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances. Synthesis of ATP Catabolism - Larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. ATP is broken down and energy is released Describe the functional anatomy of a neuron Glia - protect, nourish, and insulate neurons Cell Body / soma - contains nucleus Dendrites - branches that serve as the primary input to the neuron (receive) Axon - cable like structures through which action potentials (impulses) are conducted Terminal buttons - portion of the neuron that contains neurotransmitter release machinery necessary for communication Synapse - space in which two neurons communicate via chemical / electrical signals Myelin sheath - insulates axon to increase conduction efficiency Describe how signaling occurs at the neuronal membrane. There is an electrical current change that happens very quickly at the membrane as opposed to a slow diffusion process. Describe how signal summation determines whether an individual nerve cell will create its own action potential (illustrated nicely in Figure 35.16). Neurons receive both ESPS (excitatory signals) and ISPS (inhibitory signals). When summed up, if there is enough excitatory signals to reach the membrane potential's threshold and depolarize the neuron, the action potential will fire. Describe the simple features that distinguish the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system. CNS - brain and spinal cord PNS - All nerve cells in rest of the body. Divided into Somatic and Autonomic NS. Explain the general functions of the somatic and autonomic nervous system. Somatic NS - Voluntary behavior (reaching for an object) Autonomic NS - Less voluntary actions (controlling heart rate) Explain the general functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic branch: "fight or flight mode" / energy expenditure. Pupils dilate, accelerated heartbeat, etc. Parasympathetic branch: "rest and digest" Bringing you back to homeostasis. Slows heartbeat, pupils constrict, etc. Describe the two main classes (as biological molecules) of hormones and give an example of each type. Amino acid based - Epinephrine and norepinephrine Lipid based - Steroid hormones, sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) Describe the endocrine organs and target organs that control the reproductive system. Pituitary gland - Pituitary hormones stimulate gamete and sex steroid production Gonads - Ovaries and uterus, mammary gland. Testes, prostate gland Estrogen and progesterone stimulate uterine and mammary glands Testosterone stimulates prostate and seminal vesicle Explain how blood glucose is regulated by the pancreas. When blood glucose is too high, the pancreas secretes more insulin. When blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas releases glucagon to raise them. Describe the endocrine glands and target organs involved in controlling blood calcium levels. Low blood calcium: The parathyroid hormone is released to raise levels which is produced by the parathyroid glands. High blood calcium: Calcitonin is released to decrease levels and is produced by the C cells of the thyroid. Describe the endocrine organ involved in the stress response. Adrenal medulla for short-term stress responses via nerve impulses. Release epinephrine and norepinephrine Adrenal cortex for long-term stress responses via the hormone ACTH Describe a mechanism for multi-generation effects of EDCs on human biology. Epigenetic modification - One of the features of steroid hormones is modifying epigenetics so that things can be passed on to subsequent generations Explain when and why in the life-cycle of a human are EDCs most impactful on gender Prenatal and fetal exposure Sex determination begins early in gestation. The entire process of reproductive development is very sensitive to small changes in levels of the sex hormones PARTICULARLY during these critical windows. Fetuses lack mechanisms that are able to break down the disruptive chemicals. Describe your relative concern over the effects EDCs on you and your potential children compared to the effects of eating cured meat products and cancer. I'm less concerned about EDCs overall because there are no findings on ECDs causing human disease / adverse health effects in humans EDCs - Worried about the effect it will have on my future family instead of myself. (disrupted sex ratios and reproductive issues) Cured meat products - more worried about the effect is has on myself and cancer risks Describe the main features of the innate immune system. Body's first line of defense that responds rapidly and does not evolve Describe the main features of the adaptive immune system. Develop antibodies because of mutations and it evolves. Slower response Explain the main functions of T, B, and antigen presenting cells. B Cells - WBCs that create antibodies. Responsible for antibody response against antigens T cells - Responsible for regulating cell-mediated adaptive immune response. Focus on specific foreign particles (directly killing infected host cells). Activate other immune cells Describe the time course of antibody production upon exposure to a new pathogen/antigen. It takes a couple of weeks for a response to take place because it takes a while for the appropriate specific cells to be identified and activated. Explain vaccination Vaccination involves the delivery, usually by injection, of noninfectious antigen(s) derived from known pathogens. The effect of vaccination is to elicit immunological memory Vaccines are the primary method used for controlling viral diseases. They are intended to prevent outbreaks by building immunity to a virus, and they are usually in continuous development because of high mutation rates. The disadvantage is that they usually take some time to develop. Describe the two major components of the digestive system. Alimentary canal - the whole tube or passage by which food passes through the body from lips to anus Glands - salivary, liver, and pancreas. Secrete things into the alimentary canal Describe the layers of the alimentary canal. Mucosa layer - Epithelial layer Submucosal layer - connective tissue layer Muscularis layer - Smooth muscle layer Explain the functional organization of the alimentary canal. Made of one long tube that runs from mouth to anus. Most of the tube is coiled up and found in the abdominal cavity. Includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, and anus. Describe the exocrine and endocrine functions of the glands of the digestive system. Liver - produces/recycles bile salts that are stored in the gall bladder and released as an exocrine product that facilitates digestion of lipids. The liver produces many proteins that are released into the blood as an endocrine product Pancreas - Exocrine pancreas makes Most of the enzymes that breakdown the biomolecules into monomeric units The pancreas is an essential endocrine organ for the control of blood glucose Describe where bacteria are housed in the human digestive system. Mostly in the large intestine and part of the small intestine. The acidic environment of the stomach does not allow bacterial growth Explain the gut microbiome metabolism and the products that are thought to be responsible for causing obesity. In the liver, gut microbiome products (short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate and acetate) can be used to make glucose or lipid. A more active gut microbiome is associated with obesity. Higher levels of short-chain fatty acids are found in obese humans compared to lean humans