PPR, PPR Texes 160 Exam 2022/2023 Correct!!

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Four Stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1) Sensorimotor (0-2) 2) Preoperational (2-7) 3) Concrete operational (7-11) 4) Formal operational (11-adulthood) How does Piaget think kids learn? Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. What do Piaget's stages mean? The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed that all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage. Schemes Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment. Assimilation Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes. Accommodation Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. Adaptation The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs. Equilibration The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development. Disequilibrium An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences. Sensorimotor Stage The earliest stage (0-2) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop object permanence and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior. Object Permanence The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them. Preoperational Stage The second stage (2-7) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered. Egocentric Believing that everyone sees the world as you do. Conservation The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties. Centration Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision. Reversibility The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point. Class Inclusion The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking. Concrete Operational Stage The third stage (7-11) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible. Formal Operational The fourth stage of cognitive development (11-adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking. Inferred Reality The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings. Seriation Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression. Transivity A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Inversion A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. Reciprocity A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. Self-regulation According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Sign Systems Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate. Private Speech Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions. Zone of Proximal Development Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Scaffolding Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Cooperative Learning Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking. Developmentally Appropriate Education Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level. Psychosocial Theory A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage. Piaget's Theory of Moral Development Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. Heteronomous Morality According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment. Autonomous Morality According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning. Preconventional Level of Morality Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration. Conventional Level of Morality Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration. Postconventional Level of Morality Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society. Socioeconomic Status (SES) Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group. Ethnicity A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity. Bilingual Education Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English. Four types of Bilingual Education language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual Limited English Proficient (LEP) A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning. English as a Second Language (ESL) Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English. Multicultural Education An educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students. Individualized Education Program (IEP) A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD) A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education. Inclusion An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers. Gifted and Talented (GT) Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent. Learning Styles A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors. Multiple Intelligences An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The Eight Intelligences 1) interpersonal 2) intrapersonal 3) musical-linguistic 4) spatial 5) logical mathematical 6) bodily-kinesthetic 7) linguistic 8) naturalist Direct Instruction An instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson 1) State learning objectives 2) Review prerequisites 3) Present new material 4) Conduct learning probes 5) Provide independent practice 6) Assessment and feedback 7) Review and provide distributed practice Mental Set Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus. Wait Time The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986). Calling Order The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question. Choral Response Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback. Time-on-Task The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student. Objective The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn. Overt/Covert Behavior Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Pacing The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding. Smoothness The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning. Momentum The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction. Reinforcement The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Shaping The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal. Massed Practice A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time. Distributed Practice A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently. Retention The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Top-Down Processing A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations. Motivation An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time. Intrinsic incentive internal or natural desire or interest Extrinsic incentive an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude Classical Conditioning The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. Operant Conditioning The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. Flexible Grouping The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction. Classroom Climate The way a classroom feels to the participants. Conflict Contaminants Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Conflict Resolution Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes: 1) Survival 2) Safety 3) Belonging 4) Self-Esteem 5) Intellectual Achievement 6) Aesthetic Appreciation 7) Self-Actualization Cambourne's Conditions for Learning Characteristics of the environment that support learning. Cambourne's Conditions for Learning include: 1) Immersion 2) Demonstration 3) Expectation 4) Responsibility 5) Employment 6) Approximation 7) Engagement Withitness The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior. Overlapping A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity. Principle of Least Intervention Correcting misbehavior by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Home Contingency A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior. Rules Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior. Procedures Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. Group Contingency A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures. Instructional Strategy A plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Assessment A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning. Evaluation A formal measurement and judgement of student performance or behavior. Formative Assessment Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction. Summative Assessment Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery. Reliability The consistency of test results over time. Validity The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. Norm-referenced Test A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores. Criterion-referenced Test A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. (STAAR, TAKS) Measurement-based Assessment Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers. Performance-based Assessment An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation. Authentic Assessment Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation. Portfolio An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning. Parallel Play Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence. Bloom's Taxonomy An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. Bloom's Taxonomy (levels) 1) Knowledge 2) Comprehension 3) Application 4) Analysis 5) Sythesis 6) Evaluation Primacy Effect The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items. Recency Effect The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items. Metacognition Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn. Prior Knowledge Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning. Risk-Free Environment A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued. Self-Concept One's perception of oneself. Self-Efficacy The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something. Transfer The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area. Reflective Practice is a term which encompasses ways teachers may self-assess teaching practices and critically examine their work. Through reflection, teachers analyze lessons and teaching practices, which helps them develop as professionals. ELL students must acquire: both social and academic language proficiency in English. Intermediate level of reading proficiency The learner will have the ability to read and understand simple, high-frequency English used in routine academic and social contexts. The learner should be able to seek clarification from the teacher in English. Due Process describes the parents' rights to disagree with an IEP or an evaluation of their child's abilities. Disagreements may be settled through an impartial due process hearing presided over by an officer appointed by the state. Advanced level of English proficieny can participate in most writing activities, with second-language acquisition support. Uses predominately grade-appropriate English to write, using some detail. With support from the teacher, has an emerging ability to express herself using self-generated, connected text Occasionally exhibits second-language acquisition errors. James Marcia James Marcia is a Canadian developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises. The four processes that Marcia defined are: Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement. Foreclosure In this state, an adolescent may blindly accept whatever ideology or values system that has been given to them from their parents or family members. This indicates a "pseudo-identity" that is too rigid or fixed to meet life's future crises. Identity Diffusion This state is a struggle of identity that is marked by no real progress in deciding an occupation or ideology of one's own. There is no commitment to anything or ability to develop one's sense of self. An individual may have had an identity crisis, but it would not have been resolved. Moratorium This state marks little real commitment to an ideology or occupation but is also a state of experimentation. It also marks an ongoing identity crisis and the examination of alternate life choices. Identity Achievement This state is the state of clarity and of development of one's identity. It marks a commitment to an ideology or more direction in terms of occupational goals. These decisions have been autonomously made and developed by a formed ego identity. Carol Gilligan Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936, in New York City. She has received her doctorate degree in social psychology from Harvard University in 1964 and began teaching at Harvard in 1967. Then in 1970 she became a research assistant for the great theorist of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care Three stages: Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional Preconventional (Gilligan) Goal is individual survival Conventional (Gilligan) Self sacrifice is goodness Postconventional (Gilligan) Principle of nonviolence (Do not hurt self or others) Piaget Cognitive Characteristics Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are: Sensorimotor. Birth through ages 18-24 months Preoperational. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7) Concrete operational. Ages 7 to 12 Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood Erikson Psychosocial Stages 1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope) 2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will) 3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose) 4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence) 5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) 6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love) 7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) 8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) Kohlberg Moral stages Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality:At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. Level 2 - Conventional morality: At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. • Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. • Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality:Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. • Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. • Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage. Human development physical stages 1.- Prebirth: Potential . 2.- Birth: Hope - When a child is born, 3.- Infancy (Ages 0-3): Vitality - The infant is a vibrant and seemingly unlimited source of energy. 4.- Early Childhood (Ages 3-6): Playfulness - When young children play, they recreate the world anew. 5.- Middle Childhood (Ages 6-8): Imagination 6.- Late Childhood (Ages 9-11): Ingenuity . 7.-Adolescence (Ages 12-20): Passion - 8.- Early Adulthood (Ages 20-35): Enterprise - 9.-Midlife (Ages 35-50): Contemplation 10.- Mature Adulthood (Ages 50-80): Benevolence 11.- Late Adulthood (Age 80+): Wisdom 12.-Death & Dying: Life - Developmental characteristics of EC-6 Learners Physical Pre-K-Kindergarten Active, motor development, need frequent bathroom breaks, developing large muscles, developing eye-hand coordination, may experience difficulty in focus eyes. Grade 1-4 Tend to be more active, need to move about often, need frequent breaks, need rest periods, better large muscle control, may be farsighted, may be prone to accidents. Grade 5-6 The beginning of noticeable differences in height between sexes, able to maintain focus for longer periods of time, less restless, more control of both fine and large muscles, the beginning signs of sexual masturbation. Cognitive Pre-K-Kindergarten Preoperational, short attention span, self-regulating patterns of language. Grade 1-4 Move from preoperational to Concrete need a variety of activities, ready to learn. Grade 5-6 Beginning to move to abstract thinking, still rely on hands-on learning to understand concept optimally. Social Pre-K-Kindergarten Initiative versus guilt, frequent changes in friends, parallel play, enjoy sharing time, need explorations and investigations, developing skills of choice and independence. Grade 1-4 Industry versus inferiority, more selective in choosing friends, prefers organized games, focus on rules, may argue frequently, enjoy talking, may tattletale. Grade 5-6 Interested in peer groups, still in industry versus inferiority stages. Emotional Pre-K-Kindergarten Preconventional, frequent but brief disagreements, awareness of sex roles, emotions readily shown, tends to be teacher pleasers, need firm limits with consistency. Grade 1-4 Sensitive to criticism and rejection, eager to please, sensitive to others. Grade 5-6 More sensitive to opinion of peer group, the beginning stage of infatuation, less reliance on parents.