Summary ATI TEAS 7 ALL SECTIONS PREP: Complete A+ Score Guide; Latest Updated

ATI TEAS 7 ALL SECTIONS PREP: Complete A+ Score Guide.ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body. Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules.  Cytology: study of cells.  Histology: study of tissues. Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures. *Smallest living is a CELL. *Smallest organisms is a ATOM. Levels of Hierarchy Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element. Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell. Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell. Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs. Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues. Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous.  Humans have 11 Organ Systems. Cells Structure • Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin • Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”. • Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell. • Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal. • Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell. • Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal. • Cytosol- liquid material in cell. • Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to enter and exit cell. • Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell. • Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular respiration Animal Cells Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis. Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division. Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies. Cilia- cause cell to move. Flagella- whip tail to move cell. TISSUES: ⟶ Group of CELLS. ⟶ Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective. 1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin 2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph.  It protects and binds body parts. a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support ⟶ Fibrous b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends against disease. c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells 3. Muscle: supports and move body  Smooth  Cardiac  Skeletal 4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.  Neurons: control responses to changes in environment. Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic/cytoplasmic material. Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form. Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle structure. Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes. Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched. Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell. Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens twice, results in four daughter cells instead of two. Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.  Gametes in female = Egg  Gametes in Male = Sperm  Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote. Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction. 1. Respiratory System • main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction. Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air, and also contains olfactory receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum. External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production. Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus. Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation. Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs. • Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse. Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs. Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively. Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex. The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement. • Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface. • Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall. • Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together. Perfusion- The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body. • Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs. • Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs. Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing. Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal. Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal. Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse. Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH. Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing. Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections. 2. Cardiovascular System Hear t • Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity. • Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulatory system • Orientation- flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex points to left hip. Heart Coverings • Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits. Heart Layers • Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium. • Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue forming the fibrous skeleton. • Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers. 4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited pumping means thin walls. Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls. Sulci – the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats and vessels. Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers. Right Atrium • Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm. • Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm. • Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall. Left Atrium • 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs. Right Ventricle • Receives blood from the right atrium. • Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs. Left Ventricle • Receives blood from the left atrium • Blood exits into the aorta to the body. **Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation. Pulmonary Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back. • Is pumped by the right half of the heart • Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O2 Systemic Circuit • The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back • Is pumped by the left half of the heart • Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O2 CIRCULATION Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium. Atrioventricular Valves • Separate an atrium from a ventricle. • Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve. Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm. Heart Sounds- the “lub” and “dub” • Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid valves) • Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves. Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction” Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation” Cardiac Cells • Large amount of mitochondria for endurance • Generate electrical impulses. • Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison. Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body. Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Bloo d • Connective tissue • pH- 7.35-7.45 • Volume- 4-6L Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection. Plasma – liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein solutes. Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Leukocytes- white blood cells Thrombocytes- platelets Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume. • Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains • Heme- pigment portion with a central iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain) Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow. Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune responses. T-cells – target virally infected cells. B-cells- make antibodies. Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions: • Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues. • Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning. Lymphatic vessels – the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a unidirectional flow. Lymphoid cells • Lymphocytes – the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens. • Plasma cells – specialized B cells that produce antibodies. • Macrophages – phagocytize any foreign cells or debris. • Dendritic cells – specialized phagocytes with cellular projections. • Reticular cells – produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the lymphoid cells. Lymph – the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels. Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle. Lymph nodes – the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions • Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes • Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes 3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System) Structures of the Digestive Tract: • Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions • Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth. • Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal. • Peristalsis – waves of muscle contraction that propel food. • Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. • Segmentation – contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food. • Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes. • Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph. • Defecation – removal of indigestible materials through the anus. Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes. • Teeth - bony structures used in mastication. • Tongue – skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus. • Palate – roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions. • Uvula – extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. Salivary glands – paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity. Saliva – secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens. Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing) • Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food Deglutition – when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus. Stomach – stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes. Chyme – the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours. Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine Gastric ulcers – erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium. Pyloric sphincter – circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine. Gastric pits/glands – invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the gastric juices. • Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that works best in acidic pH. • Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), to produce acidic environment. • Mucous neck cells – produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the mucosa. • Enteroendocrine cells – secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity. Small intestine – coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine. Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. Regions – divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) – regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas into the duodenum. Specializations for absorption: • Villi– finger-like projections of the mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium. Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption. • Intestinal crypts – invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion. • Microvilli – finger-like extensions of the epithelial cell membranes with attached “brush border enzymes,” further increasing surface area. Liver – a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile. Bile – a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts. Emulsification – the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct. The Pancreas – gland whose acinar cells produces pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases. Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from the small intestine to the anus while absorbing water and forming feces. Ileocecal valve – regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine. Haustra – individual pouches of the large intestine wall. Teniae coli – thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra. Regions: • Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix. • Ascending colon – transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the hepatic flexure. • Transverse colon – transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure. • Descending colon – transports food down the left side of the abdomen. • Sigmoid colon – s-shaped region. Rectum – most distal region of the colon, where feces is stored until defecation. Rectal valves – projections that allow gases to pass around feces. Anus – end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs. Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle regulating anal opening. External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle regulating anal opening. 4. Neuromuscular System (Nervous System) Skeletal Muscle Fiber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many mitochondria. Sarcolemma- the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath. Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber. Glycosomes-compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity. Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated appearance. Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins. Thin Filaments- composed of actin and other proteins. NMJ- where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber. Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to trigger muscle contraction. Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ’s to trigger contractions, released from neuron and crosses synaptic cleft. Afferent Nerves- sensory nerves that send message to the CNS Efferent Nerves- motor nerves that send message to muscles. ANS- autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions including cardiac and smooth muscle, heart, digestion and breathing. Axon- a nerve fiber. Contraction- elongating or shortening of muscle to perform muscle actions. Nerve- a bundle of axons that transmit electrical impulses to peripheral organs. Synapse- the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons. 5. Reproductive System Male Reproductive Testes- the primary sex organs, producing sperm and sex hormones. • Sustain developing sperm, and produce proteins used in sperm production. Scrotum- the sac of skin that contains the testes. • Provides ideal temp for sperm • Dartos Muscle- contracts to fold scrotum wall. • Cremaster Muscle-contracts to elevate testes. Prostate & Seminal Vesicles- produce the fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing sperm. Penis- the male copulatory system. Testosterone- the hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics. The Duct System • Epididymis- coiled tubules clinging to the testes where sperm mature and gain their ability to swim. • Vas deferens- tubule that transports sperm from the epididymis to the prostate gland, • Urethra- passage that transports semen and urine. Female Reproductive Ovaries- primary sex organ, producing eggs and sex hormones. Estrogen is produced in ovaries. Fallopian tubes- transports an egg from and ovary to uterus Fimbriae- finger-like projections at the opening of the fallopian tube that sweep eggs in. Uterus- hollow, muscular organ that can house and nourish a developing embryo. Females produce estrogen from the ovaries, which causes the egg to mature in the ovary’s Graafian follicle and the uterine endometrium to thicken. A surge of LH, luteinizing hormone, from the pituitary causes the developing egg to be released. The empty Graafian follicle is now called the corpus luteum and produces large amounts of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the egg. 6. Integumentary System (Exocrine) • Largest organ in this system is the SKIN. • Synthesizes vitamin D. a) Skin:  Sebaceous glands, sweat glands  Hair  Nails b) Protection:  Protects body from pathogens c) Secretion:  Secretes oil d) Communication:  Sensory receptors send information about pain, touch, pressure, and temperature. 1. Epidermis: a) Most superficial layer of the skin b) Epithelial cells *Does not contains any blood vessels c) Stratum Basale • Deepest portion • Single layer of cells • Keratinized • Creates Skin color • Protect against UV rays 2. Dermis: • Mostly connective tissue • Blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands. • Elastin and collagen fibers 3. Subcutaneous Layer/ Hypodermis • Connective tissue o Binds skin to muscle • Fat deposits cushion and insulate Five types of Skin Layers in the Epidermis: “Come Let’s Get Sun Burned” (Top to Bottom) • Stratum Corneum – all dead cells • Stratum Lucidum – dead cells in thick skin • Stratum Granulosum -mixture of old cells that are alive and dying cells • Stratum Spinosum – fairly young and happy cells • Stratum Basale – new healthy cells being produced (Melanin is in this layer; its job is to created skin color) Temperature Homeostasis: Skin is involved in temperature homeostasis through sweat glands. Sebaceous and Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands: Both are Exocrine glands. They relieve chemicals to the duct to open cavities. Example: Tears, Sweat and Saliva. Sudoriferous Glands- sweat glands. (exocrine) Sebaceous Glands- lubricating oily into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair. (apocrine) Keratin: Is a protein and the major component of hair, skin and nails. 7. Endocrine System Anatomy – scattered glands that produce and release hormones into the blood Function – control of the body, but effects are slow and prolonged (opposite of nervous system) Gland types: • Exocrine – produce non-hormonal secretions through ducts. • Endocrine – ductless glands that produce hormones secreted directly into body fluids. • Mixed glands – perform both endocrine and exocrine functions. Humoral – hormones released in response to changes in body fluids (ions, nutrients, etc.) Neural – hormone release in response to nervous stimulation. Hormonal – hormone release in response to hormones from other endocrine glands. Negative Feedback – rising levels of a hormone causes secretion of that hormone to stop The Pituitary Gland • hangs from the brain’s hypothalamus via a stalk called the infundibulum. All pituitary secretions are initiated by the hypothalamus!!! Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) – Inhibits urination. prevents changes in water balance by stimulating water reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Thyroid Hormone (TH) – a mix of two hormones made by follicular cells: Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) named for the number of iodine atoms attached Functions: • control of metabolic rate • regulates tissue growth and development • maintains blood pressure Adrenal Glands-Paired glands, located above each kidney. The Pancreas • Located beneath the stomach • Mixed gland – acinar cells have exocrine (digestive) function • Groups of cells called pancreatic islets secrete hormones Hormones • Glucagon – secreted by alpha cells, used to elevate blood glucose levels • Insulin – secreted by beta cells, used to lower blood glucose levels The Gonads – the reproductive organs that produce steroidal sex hormones. • Ovaries – female structure producing estrogen and progesterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulate the menstrual cycle • Testes – male structure producing testosterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulates sperm production. The Pineal Gland – in the epithalamus of the brain, secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep- wake cycle by causing drowsiness. The Thymus – sits above the heart and diminishes with age, produces a group of hormones that activate T-lymphocytes. 8. Genitourinary System Urinary System – includes the paired kidneys and ureters and the single bladder and urethra. Functions • Excretion – the elimination of wastes and toxins from the body via urine (regulating water and ion balance and blood volume) Kidney Layers • Cortex - outer, lighter region where majority of filtration occurs. Glomerulus is found in the cortex. • Medulla - inner, darker region of alternating renal pyramids and renal columns. • Renal pyramids - a bundle of collecting ducts that drain urine from the cortex. • Renal column – cortical tissue between pyramids where blood vessels pass to access the cortex. Parts of the renal tubule • Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule – start of the tubule that surrounds the glomerulus to catch its leaked fluids and solutes. • Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) – first coiled area in the cortex. • Loop of Henle – long region that dips into medulla, includes descending and ascending limbs. • Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) – second coiled area in the cortex. Collecting duct – tubule that collects urine from many nephrons for transport through a pyramid to the renal sinus. Urine is formed in 3 steps • Glomerular filtration – plasma and solutes (valuable and waste) leak from the glomerulus into the bowman’s capsule, forming filtrate. • Tubular reabsorption – valuable solutes are transported from the filtrate back to the plasma of the peritubular capillaries. • Tubular secretion – additional wastes are added to the filtrate from the plasma of the peritubular capillaries. The filtrate is now changed to urine. Color – ranges from clear to deep yellow. Yellowness is due to the presence of urochrome, a pigment from the breakdown of bilirubin. pH – urine is normally slightly acidic, pH near 6, but diet can shift this toward more acidic or alkaline. Urine Composition • 95% water • 5% solutes • Urea – from the breakdown of amino acids • Uric acid – from the breakdown of nucleic acids • Creatinine – from the breakdown of creatine phosphate • Ions – sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, calcium, H+ Ureter – tube to transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urinary bladder – muscular organ that stores urine. • Lined with a transitional epithelium to allow stretch. Renal Arteries- the two branches of the abdominal aorta that supply kidneys. Urethra – tube that drains urine from the bladder and transports it out of the body. Much longer in males because it courses through the penis. Internal urethral sphincter – smooth muscle structure surrounding the urethra at the base of the bladder. External urethral sphincter – skeletal muscle structure surrounding the urethra in the urigenital diaphragm. Micturition (voiding) – the act of emptying the bladder Micturition reflex: 1. When about 200 mL of urine is collected, stretch of the bladder initiates the reflex causing contractions of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter 2. Relaxation of the external urethral sphincter can allow micturition, OR contraction of the external urethral sphincter can temporarily inhibit the reflex 3. After an additional 200 mL of urine is collected, the reflex restarts. 9. Immune System Immune System – a “functional system” consisting of many dispersed cells and molecules that target pathogens, disease-causing microbes. Innate defenses (nonspecific) – inborn immunity that constantly prevents infection of any target. Adaptive defenses (specific) – form slower responses to specific targets, improves through life. Innate defenses: Surface barriers – skin and mucous membranes that act as first line of defense. • acidity and toxins of skin secretions prevent bacterial growth. • acidic secretions in stomach kill microbes. • enzymes in saliva and tears kill bacteria. • mucous in digestive and respiratory tracts trap microbes. Innate defenses Internal defenses – cells and molecules that act as second line of defense. • Phagocytes – cells that engulf foreign cells and debris. • Fever – prevents bacterial growth and encourages healing. • Natural killer cells – patrol tissues and kill cells. • Antimicrobial proteins – kill bacteria and prevent spread of viruses. • Inflammation – complex tissue response to injury or infection. Phagocytes – include macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils. Steps of phagocytosis: • Phagocyte attaches to and engulfs microbe, forming a phagosome. • The phagosome fuses with an enzyme-filled lysosome, forming a phagolysosome. • The microbe is digested and waste is removed. Adaptive defenses – the slow but highly specific method of targeting pathogens, mainly via lymphocytes • Specific – certain cells targeting particular pathogens • Systemic – full body, not one infection site • Memory – forms cells to prepare for future encounters 1. Humoral Immunity (antibody-mediated) – uses antibodies in body fluids to target specific pathogens, primarily bacteria 2. Cellular immunity (cell-mediated) – uses whole cells to target specific pathogens, primarily cancerous cells and virally or parasitically infected cells B lymphocytes – oversee humoral immunity T lymphocytes - oversee cellular immunity Plasma cells – the B cell clones that specialize in antibody production and secretion, only a 4- 5day lifespan Memory cells – long-lived clones for future antigen challenge Active humoral immunity – a humoral immune response involving a B cell challenge, producing immunological memory • Naturally – bacterial or viral infection • Artificially – vaccine injection of dead or weakened pathogen Passive humoral immunity – a humoral immune response not involving a B cell challenge, and not memory • Naturally – antibodies from mother to child via placenta or breast milk • Artificially – antibody injections, as in rabies shots and antivenom Antibodies (immunoglobulins) – proteins secreted by B cells that bind to specific pathogens, a single y-shaped protein is called a monomer • Heavy and light chains – inner and outer peptide chains, lengths vary • Variable regions – unique area with antigen-specific binding sites • Constant regions – large region that determines the ‘class’ of the antibody Cellular immune response – a cell-mediated response triggered by the antigen challenge of a T cell, where this antigen must be presented. Their primary targets are cancerous cells or cells infected by virus or parasite CD4 cells – called “Helper T cells”, can only receive antigens presented by MHC class 2 CD8 cells – called “Cytotoxic T cells” because they can kill cells directly, can only receive antigens presented by MHC class 1 Autoimmunity – any condition where the body’s immune system uses antibodies and Cytotoxic T cells to target self tissues • Multiple Sclerosis - targets white matter of the CNS • Rheumatoid arthritis – targets joints tissues • Myasthenia gravis – targets ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions. Hypersensitivities (allergic reactions) – when the immune system responds to a non-pathogenic substance, now called an allergen • Sensitization – first encounter with allergen leads to the production of many, specific IgE antibodies • Secondary response – future encounters activate the antibodies, triggering mast cells and basophils to release histamine. Histamine release causes vasodilation, mucus secretion, bronchial constriction, etc. Anaphylactic shock – when an allergic reaction becomes systemic, can be fatal due to throat swelling and bronchial constriction 10. Skeletal System Functions: • Support – body shape • Protection – encloses organs • Movement – muscles use bones as levers • Storage – calcium reservoir • Hematopoiesis – blood cell formation in marrow Components: • Bone – connective tissue giving rigid support • Cartilage – support with flexibility • Ligament – dense connective tissue attaching bone to bone • Tendon – dense connective tissue attaching muscle to bone Cartilage: • an avascular connective tissue, wrapped in membrane called perichondrium with blood vessels • Cells called chondrocytes sit in hollow spaces called lacunae • Fluid matrix filled with collagen fibers Cartilage types: • Hyaline – firm but flexible, found at bone ends, nose, ribcage • Elastic – elastic fibers gives flexibility, found in epiglottis and outer ear • Fibrocartilage – shock absorber, found in intervertebral discs and menisci Bone Classification by Location: • Axial – in body’s axis – skull, ribcage, vertebrae • Appendicular – of the appendages – limbs and girdles Bone Classification by Shape • Long – longer than wide ex: humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula • Short – cube shaped ex: talus, metatarsals, clavicle • Flat – thin bones ex: sternum, scapula, ribs • Irregular – complex shape: vertebra, knee, skull. Red Marrow Cavities -red marrow is hematopoietic, forming blood cells. Found in spongy bone. Yellow Marrow Cavities-yellow marrow is fat, not hematopoietic. Found in medullary cavities. Osteon (Haversian system) – functional unit of compact bone. Long cylinder acting as a weight-bearing pillar Lamellae – the rings of bone matrix that form the osteons Bone Cell Types • Osteogenic cells – bone stem cells, source for other bone cells • Osteoblasts – bone forming cells, produce fibers and fluids of bone matrix • Osteocytes – mature bone cell, maintains tissue • Osteoclasts – bone resorbing cells, breaks down bone tissue to allow remodeling Central Canal (Haversian canal) – hollow center of an osteon containing blood vessels and nerves. Volkmann’s canals – spaces that run side-to-side connecting the periosteum and osteons to each other. Lacunae – hollow spaces within the bony matrix that enclose osteocytes Canaliculi – tiny canals that link the lacunae and canals Periosteum – fibrous membrane surrounding diaphysis Endosteum – membrane lining the medullary cavity and spaces of spongy bone Osteoporosis- A disease that causes brittle bones fragile bones. Rheumatoid Arthritis- a progressive joint disease that causes joint inflammation and pain. 11. Muscular System • Skeletal o Voluntary muscles o Composed of muscle fibers (parallel bundles) o Striated o Consist of muscle fibers  Contains bundle of myofibrils  Contractile units called sarcomeres • Cardiac  Contain 2 protein microfilaments • Thick filament  Protein myosin • Thin filament  Protein actin  When an electrical signal reaches a muscle fiber; calcium ions are released. o Involuntary muscle o Heart o Striated • Smooth o Involuntary muscle o Wall of internal organs  Stomach  Intestines  Blood Vessels o Non-striated *** ALL MUSCLES: • Excitability: have electric gradient which can reverse • Contraction: Ability to contract (shorten) • Elongate: Relax Life and Physical Sciences Macromolecules - Polymers joined together by covalent bonds between the monomeric units (bonds made my water removal, or dehydration) (polymers can be broken down with addition of water, hydrolysis, releasing monomers and energy) CARBS, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, NUCLEIC ACIDS. Carbohydrates - Sugars and starches, which the body breaks down into glucose • Functions include structural functions (cellulose, chitin), energy storage (amylose, amylopectin, and glycogen), and recognition molecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) • CnH2nOn usual formula Lipids - Proteins that are composed predominantly of hydrogen and carbon. Fatty acids and their derivatives that are insoluble in water (hydrophobic) • Functions are structure and storage Protein - Molecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (20 different amino acids) • Amino acids all share an amino group and a carboxylic acid group • Fibrous, hydrophobic molecules like keratin and collagen have hydrophobic amino acids on their surface, are not soluble in water, and are found in structural molecules (hair, nails...) • Globular proteins have hydrophilic surface amino acids and are soluble in water (hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes) • Membrane proteins have a stretch of hydrophobic amino acids sandwiched between layers of hydrophilic amino acids and are found embedded in membranes where they function in transport or signal transfer • Functions are enzymes, structure, transport, and immune Enzymes - Class of proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction • Speed up a reaction by lowering the energy required by the system to initiate the reaction • Reactions can be exergonic (release energy) or endergonic (require energy) Nucleic Acids - Long molecules made of nucleotides; DNA and RNA • DNA found in chromosomes in nucleus in cell, and stores hereditary information. Contains nucleotides composed of a deoxyribose sugar, one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine) and a phosphate molecule • RNA consists of ribonucleotides containing a ribose sugar, a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil) and are typically linked in a single-stranded molecule • Functions as hereditary and regulation • RNA mediates the conversion of the info stored in DNA into the proteins that are encoded by genes Messenger RNA molecules are copies of the genetic info contained in DNA that is carried to ribosomes where catalytic ribosomal RNA molecules and transfer RNAs work together to make a function protein. • Errors in sequence are mutations and usually interfere with protein function. Chromosomes, genes, DNA DNA • 64 possible combos of bases (codons). Each codon specifies one amino acid, and these codons instruct ribosomes to assemble the AA in a particular order • Gene - A “sentence” made of a specific order of codons that produces a protein Chromosome - A “chapter” linking sentences with “punctuation marks” that regulate where a gene starts and ends, and which genes are read in which cell • The two strands that make up the DNA double helix are “read” by the cell in the 5 to 3 direction. The left strand is read from top to bottom, and the right strand is read from bottom to top • Base pairs A-T linked by two hydrogen bonds, C-G linked by three Law of Heredity Parents are chosen to have pure breeding traits, one dominant and one recessive, this means that the genome of one parents contains two alleles for the dominant trait (homozygous dominant genotype) and the other parent has two alleles for the recessive trait (homozygous recessive genotype) • Monohybrid inheritance - AKA Mendel’s First Law, or the Law of Segregation, refers to the inheritance of a single trait. The parents are homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive • Heterozygous - The condition of having two different alleles one the two chromosomes • Dihybrid inheritance - AKA Mendel’s Second Law, or the Law of Independent Assortment, examines the simultaneous inheritance of two separate traits, present on two different sets of chromosomes • Dihybrid Ratio - 9:3:3:1 • Non-Mendelian Inheritance - Occurs when there are factors other than dominant/recessive in play, such as multiple alleles (blood groups A, B and O), incomplete dominance-recessive relationships that lead to an intermediate (pink flowers), combination inheritance (AB blood group), and interactions between genes called epistasis. If 3:1 or 9:3:3:1 relationship is not obtained Basic Atomic Structure Atoms: contains protons, electrons, and neutrons. Protons: Positive charge. Electrons: Negative charge. Neutrons: No charge. Anion - A negatively charged ion Cation - A positively charged ion Ion - A positively or negatively charged atom or molecule Covalent Bond - A chemical bond in which electron pairs are shared between atoms Ionic Bond - The bond between two oppositely charged ions. Compounds are soluble in water and conduct electricity. Formed by transfer of electrons between atoms. Isotope - Where the numbers of neutrons in different atoms of the same element can vary Orbital - An area around the nucleus where an electron can be found Valence electron - An electron in an outer orbital that can form bonds with other atoms • The number of protons gives the atomic number of an atom • The number of protons plus neutrons gives the atomic mass of the atom • Atoms are neutral and have equal numbers of protons and electrons The periodic table arranges atoms by increasing atomic number Atoms with similar properties have the same number of valence electrons S Orbital: 2 electrons P Orbital: 6 electrons D Orbital: 18 electrons F Orbitals: 32 electrons Gaining electrons typically happens in atoms with valences greater than 4, and losing electrons typically happens in atoms with valence less than 4 Characteristic properties of substances Boiling point - The temperature at which a liquid boils and turns into vapor Chemical properties - Characteristics of a material that present during a chemical reaction or chemical change Density - The amount of mass per volume Diffusion - Mingling of substances and movement from areas of high to low concentration Extensive Properties - Properties that depend on the state of matter Intensive Properties - Properties that do not depend on the state of matter Melting point - The temperature at which a solid change to a liquid. Nonpolar - A type of covalent bond in which two atoms share electrons Osmosis - Passage of fluid through a membrane Physical properties - Observable properties of matter Polar - A molecule that has negative and positive sides Specific heat capacity - The amount of energy needed to change the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 degree Celsius. Changes of state in matter Boiling - Liquid at a temperature at which it is changing to a vapor Condensation - Changing of vapor to a gas or liquid Critical Point - The temperature at which the liquid and gas phases of a substance have the same density Freezing - Changing from a liquid to a solid due to temperature Gas - A state of matter composed of molecules in constant random motion Liquid - A state of matter that has definition volume but not definite shape Melting - Changing from a solid to a liquid due to temperature Phase diagram - A graph of physical states of a substance under varying temperature and pressure Solid - A state of matter that retains its shape and density when not contained Sublimation - Changing from a gas to a solid without becoming a liquid Triple Point - The temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and vapor phases of a pure substance coexist Scientific Reasoning Control Variable- something kept constant during an experiment. Dependent Variable- what is measured in an experiment as a possible effect. ( y-axis of graph) Hypothesis- An educated guess that serves as a starting point for further testing. Independent Variable- what is measured in an experiment as a possible cause (x-axis of graph) Variable- something that changes. Questions: 1. Where does fertilization begin? – In the end of the fallopian tube. 2. What are the 2 major parts of the nervous system? – Central and Peripheral. 3. What produces bile? – The Liver. 4. What stores bile? - The Gallbladder. 5. What is the job of Amylase? - It breaks down starch/carbs. 6. What is the job of Lipase? – It breaks down lipid/ fat. 7. What does osteoblast do? – It destroys bone. 8. What does osteoclast do? – It absorbs bone. 9. What is the process of bone formation? - *** Way to learn it (HFBcBr) Hematoma formation Fibrocartilaginous callus formation Bony Callus formation Bone Remodeling 10. What is it called when the immune system attacks the nervous system? – Multiple Sclerosis (MS). 11. What neutralizes acid chime in the intestine? – Pancreatic secretions. 12. What is the function of myelin sheath in neurons? – Sensory perception. 13. What produces blood cells? - Bone marrow. 14. What causes osteoporosis? – Decrease in osteoblast activity and normal osteoclast activity. 15. What kind of tissue is the spinal cord? - Nervous tissue. 16. What kind of tissue is the heart? - Muscle tissue. 17. What kind of bonds in nucleotides in double strand of DNA? – Peptide. 18. What organ gets rid of metabolic wastes? – Large Intestine. 19. How does oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange? – Diffusion down concentration gradient. 20. When does a person have an increase of white blood cells? – When they have an infection. 21. What else does the circulatory system transport? – Endocrine hormones. 22. What produces gametes? Meiosis. 23. What is it called when gametes produce a zygote? – Fertilization. 24. What layer of the skin are sebaceous gland found? – Dermis. 25. What organ gets rid of nitrogenous wastes from the body? – Kidney. 26. What is the organelle that makes and transport proteins? - Golgi apparatus. 27. How does DNA and RNA bond pair? – AAATTTCCGG. 28. What part of the intestine is the vermiform appendix attached to? – The cecum. 29. What does the bladder connects to? - Urethra. 30. What is the gland that helps to protect a man’s sperm from the acidic environment in females? – Prostate gland, it secretes a thin, milky fluid that protects the sperm from acidic in the female reproductive system. 31. What brings blood to the glomerulus? – The afferent arteriole. 32. What takes blood away from the glomerulus? - The efferent arteriole. 33. What layer gives the skin color? – Basale layer in the epidermis. 34. What layer of the skin protects against UV rays? – Basale layer in the epidermis. 35. What layer of the epidermis is made up of dead, mature skin cells called keratinocytes? – The Stratum Corneum. 36. What protein shouldn’t be found in urine? – Albumin. 37. What does B-cells release? - It releases insulin (antibiotics) 38. What does A-cells release? – It releases glucagon. 39. What is found in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes? – Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane, DNA, and Ribosomes. 40. How does water moves to the cell membranes? – By protein. 41. What controls the breathing process? – Medulla Oblongata. 42. What carries oxygenated blood? - An artery moving blood from the heart to a muscle. 43. What takes oxygenated blood back to the heart? – Veins. 44. What is the function of the spleen? – It filters blood and help fight infections. 45. What is the pacemaker of the heart? – Sinoatrial node. 46. What is the function of the circulatory system? – To transport oxygen and blood. 47. What neutralizes stomach acid? - Bile/ Sodium bicarbonate. 48. What are gastrulation cells? – Germ cells. 49. What does villi do? – Increase surface area absorption. 50. Where are nutrients absorbed? – In the Small Intestine. 51. Where is water and vitamin K absorbed? – In the Large Intestine. 52. What causes goosebumps? – The Arrector Pili motor muscles/ sympathetic response. 53. What is the sympathetic response for? – Fight or Fight / Ex. Stress. 54. What is the parasympathetic response for? – Rest and Digest. 55. Which of the following cell types provide a waterproofing function for the outer layers of the skin? – Keratinocytes. 56. What are Monosaccharides? - Are constituents of carbohydrates. 57. What are fatty acids? - Are constituents of lipids. 58. What are nucleotides? - Are nucleic acids. 59. What are amino acids? - Are proteins, and enzymes are proteins. 60. What is leukemia? - Is cancer of white blood cells. 61. What is anemia? - Is when hemoglobin in red blood cells do not transport enough oxygen. 62. What is Arrhythmia? - Is the heart rhythm problems. 63. What is Hypertension? - Is a high blood pressure for other factors not for blood problems. 64. What is Demineralization? - Is bone mass loss from immobility. 65. What is Ossification? - Is the process of transforming cartilage into bone tissue. Increasing bone mass. 66. What is Hyperventilation? - As carbon dioxide level decrease, the blood becomes more basic, increasing blood pH. 67. What is Plasma? – Is the liquid portion of blood. 68. What is Hemoglobin? - Is an iron containing protein in red blood cells that absorbs oxygen. 69. What is Myoglobin? - Is an oxygen transporting pigment in muscles. 70. What is Ligaments? - Bone to Bone. 71. What is Tendons? - Bones to Muscles ENGLISH Spelling: Homograph - Word spelled the same but that have different meanings (bat, bow) Homophone - Words pronounced the same but that have different meanings Punctuatio n • Colon - Used in introduction of a quote or list, ratio, and time. • Comma- before “and” in a simple series of items (commas, colons, and...) Sentence structures • Adverb - Word or phrase that describes or modifies an adjective, verb, or another adverb • Article - Words (a and an) that refer to nouns • Complement - Sentence part that gives more information about a subject or object • Conjunction - A connecting word • Dependent Clause - A group of words that includes a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence • Independent Clause - A group of words that includes a subject and predicate and can stand alone as a complement sentence • Indirect Object - The person or thing to whom or which something is done • Interjection - Words or phrases that represent short bursts of emotion • Modifier - A word or group of words that provides description for another word • Object - A word or group of words that receives the action of a verb • Predicate - The part of a sentence that explains what the subject does or is like • Preposition - A word that describes relationships between other words • Pronoun - A word that takes the place of a noun • Subject - The main noun of a sentence that is doing or being • Compound-Complex Sentence - Sentence that includes two independent and one dependent clause Example: “The cute, furry dog wagged its tail with joy.” Simple subject - dog Article and modifiers - the cute, furry dog Simple predicate - wagged Complete predicate and direct object - its tail Prepositional modifier - with joy Gramma r • Diction - The style of writing determined by word choice • Fragment - An incomplete sentence • Perfective - A verb for an object that has been completed • Prescriptive grammar - Specific rules for using language and grammar • Progressive - A verb that shows something is currently happening • Tense - Past, present, and future times • Transition word - Words that link or introduce ideas • Subject-verb agreement - Matching like numbers of subjects and verbs: singular with singular, plural with plural • Pronoun-Antecedent agreement - Matching like numbers of pronouns and their antecedents: singular with singular, plural with plural. • Colloquialism - An informal word or phrase • First person – Uses the subject pronoun “I” • Second person - A narrative mode that addresses the reader as “you” • Third person – Uses the subject pronoun “He, She and They” • Primary source – first-hand account of the event that was created at about the time the event was occurred. • Secondary source – created by a person who did not witness the event. • Bibliophile – book lover • Alter – to change • Altar – place of sacrifice • Clichés – overused expressions • Analyzed Word Parts Affix - Letters placed at the beginning or end of a word or word part to change its meaning • Derivation - Determining the origin of a word • Inflection - Details of how a word is expressed to modify its tone or meaning • Morpheme - The smallest meaningful unit in grammar • Prefix - An affix that appears at the beginning of the word • Root - A word to which an affix can be attached • Suffix - An affix that appears at the end of a word Reading Key Ideas and Details Summarize a complex text: What am I reading about? What is important to know about text? • Summarize - Define main idea, highlight most important supporting details and arguments, contains same message as original text • Paraphrase - Rephrasing, “translates”, into own words including details Infer the logical conclusion from a reading selection: Key Terms • Directly stated info - Aim to draw conclusions from info stated within a passage (no implications) • Inference - Piece of info that is implied but not written outright • Implications - Things that the author does not say directly, but readers can assume based off info Identify the topic, main idea, and supporting details: Who/what is paragraph is talking about about? • Topic/main idea - Topic is the subject of text, and main idea is most important point being made • Supporting details - Provide evidence and backing for the main point • Topic summary/sentences - Encapsulate main idea of text (beginning of each section) Follow a given set of directions: Terms that signify order, relationship among steps Procedural signal words such as first, then, second, finally, now, next, while etc. Identify specific info from a printed communication: Memo, announcements, advertisements • Memo-more informal, is usually grammatically concise and correct. The formal format results from the audience usually being internal (business staff members, school colleagues) • Printed Public Announcements- inform the public about organization, upcoming events, and services. The message must be short, the design simple and eye-pleasing, and important info easily accessible. • Classified Advertisements- short and detailed offering services. Print and online newspapers, magazines and blogs charge by the word. Identify info from a graphic representation of info: graphic, legend, representation, scale Recognize events in a sequence: When, how often, length of time, chronological, sequential • Chronological order- in order by time • Sequential order- following a set order Craft and Structure Distinguish between fact and opinion, biases, and stereotypes: Proven, tendencies, categorizations • Fact/opinion- Fact can be analyzed, proved or disproved. Opinion is personal thoughts or feelings (beliefs, feelings…) Opinions can mislead the reader. • Biases/stereotypes - Biases are unfair/inaccurate and author ignores reasonable counterargument. Stereotypes are applied specifically to a group or place. Recognize the structure of texts in various formats: Know the modes, compare/contrast, cause/effect, problem/solution • Persuasive - Author convinces reader to believe something about a topic • Problem/solution - Problem presented followed by a solution, challenges reader to take action • Expository - Author informs, explains, or tells how to • Cause/effect - Cause (since, because, due too…) and effect (consequently, therefore…) • Compare/contrast - Compare (both, same, too, like, as well…) and contract (but, however, yet, instead…) • Procedure - First, next, then, last, in closing… • Descriptive - Focuses on particular subject and attempts to depict subject to be clear to readers • Narrative - Fiction or nonfiction story. Must have plot, characters, and figurative language (after a few days, this instant, instantly, previously) • Technical - Describes complex object or process Interpret the meaning of words and phrases using context: Distinguish between connotation, denotation, and figurative language • Denotation - Nonfiction, literal meaning of word (dictionary def) • Connotation - Beyond denotation by including emotional reaction, the implied meaning of a word or idea • Figurative - Figure of speech • Simile - Comparison between unlike things by using like or as • Metaphor - Comparison between unlike things without using like or as • Personification - Giving human attributes to something nonhuman Determine the denotative meaning of words: Identify the correct definition of a word and a source to find vocabulary definitions • How you look up a word in the dictionary. Evaluate the author’s purpose in a given text: Ask yourself whether the author is trying to persuade, inform, or entertain • Narrative - Often serve to entertain an audience • Informational - Used to inform readers about a specific topic • Persuasive - Advertisements, newspapers, made to persuade Evaluate the author’s point of view in a given text: Think about who the author is, who they are associated with, type of publication, whether info is face or opinion • Fact-checking - Verifying facts and statements in text • Peer-reviewed journal - Published writings that have been analyzed by experts in the field Use text features: Find headings/subheadings, identify features (key, legend, bold/italic, footnote, glossary, index, TOC…) and use navigational tools in media • Bold font is any text that is darkened to help emphasize a remark or comment. • Italics are most often used to emphasize certain words, to indicate that they are in a foreign language, or to set off the title of a literary or artistic work. Writer wants to draw attention to specific portions of txt for a reason. • Glossary - Where to find word definitions • Index - Lists topics and page numbers where to find them • Table of Contents - What pages to turn for list of chapters Integration of knowledge and ideas Identify primary sources in various media: Distinguish between primary sources and other types of documents • Primary source - A firsthand document or source created at the time in question • Secondary source - Secondhand account of events • Tertiary source - A compilation of primary and secondary sources Use evidence from text to make predictions and inferences, and draw conclusions about a piece of writing: Synthesize info from the text to form a prediction, make an inference, and form a conclusion and cite evidence to support prediction, inference, or conclusion • Foreshadowing - An au