THL1502/1/ STUDY SUMMARY.

THL1502. THL1502/1/ STUDY SUMMARY. The Communication Situation in Literary Genres When distinguishing the general characteristics of the three main literary genres, namely poetry, narrative and drama, we find that the characteristics traditionally attributed to each are the following: Poetry is a monologue by a singe voice expressing personal thoughts and feelings arranged in a distinctive typographic pattern on the printed page. Narrative is dialogical, entailing a narration of events and a portrayal of the thoughts, feelings, deeds and conversations and experiences of several characters written in prose. Drama is dialogical, entailing the dramatisation of the deeds, thoughts, feelings, experiences and conversations of one or more characters. This kind of characterisation is based on the specific communication situation in each genre. Texts can be classified according to the appearance and function of the speaker(s) who express these texts. Where only one spokesperson takes the floor, the text concerned is designated a monologue; and although monologues may be found in other genres such as plays, poetry is the traditional domain of this type of text. When narration is largely entrusted to a single spokesperson, with occasional interludes where other actors speak, the text is known as a narrative or epic. These texts are characterised by the intrinsic inequality of the various speakers: although the main speaker, who is the narrator, may quote the words of other actors, the reverse is not possible. In fact, the actors do not know that they are being quoted and that their words are therefore embedded in those of the main speaker or narrator. When different actors are collectively employed as speakers, the text is dramatic. Here the actors are intrinsically equal in that they speak in turn and also hear each other speaking. According to the above outline, the speaker(s) in a text determine(s) to which category a particular literary text will be assigned. The text may be classified as: (i) a poetic or lyric text having one speaker only (ii) a narrative or epic text accommodating a narrator and other speakers (iii) a dramatic text characterised by different speakers without the mediation of a narrator. The communication situation found in the three genres provides us with a basic form of genre differentiation. There are further aspects which are specific to each genre. In the three parts which make up this study each of the genres and their distinctive properties are discussed in detail. THL1502/1 1 PART I: POETIC TEXTS In this part of the module you will be introduced to the poetic text and the way in which it differs from the narrative and the dramatic. We will investigate intratextual approaches to the study of poetry, metaphorical language, syntactic deviation, syntactic (over)regulation, typography, sound, rhythm and metre. The content sections of this module are as follows: General Introduction v–vi Study unit 1: What is poetry? Study unit 2: Figurative language and the metaphor Study unit 3: Syntactic organisation Study unit 4: Sound in poetry Study unit 5: Rhythm and metre Study unit 6: A medical procedure? Conclusion Introduction A hearty welcome to the English poetry course for the module THL1502. This course is presented in both Afrikaans and English. Textual material such as definitions, quotations and poems and other examples will therefore not necessarily be the same in English and Afrikaans. The main purpose in undertaking any study is self-empowerment. The objectives of this part are therefore the following: • to accompany you as you gradually discover poetry and learn to understand and appreciate it as a literary art form, while gaining new insights • to provide you with a "road map" on this journey of discovery, showing a network of "main roads" and serving as a guide to help you reach your final destination, which is the communicative meaning of the poem; these "main roads" are the structural elements of the poem as derived from literary theory or the aesthetic aspects of poetry • to achieve the above objective by focusing specifically on the textually grounded approach, similar to Russian Formalism and the "New Critics", as a communicative point of departure in unlocking and explaining the nature of poetry • to give you practical exposure to literary theory by means of activities and accompany you as you learn about the theory and become more comfortable with identifying, interpreting and applying elements in the world of poetry • to make you aware of the wealth of meanings in poems and the way in which they can fruitfully contribute to the expansion of your knowledge • to enable you, when you have completed this section, to reflect on the value of acquiring greater insight into and understanding of the nature of poetry for yourself and the world around you To help you get to grips with some rather complicated terminology, I have supplied subjectrelated definitions as marginal notes. You will be pleased to know that answers to activity questions are provided. These answers will give you the opportunity to evaluate the knowledge you have acquired by working through the activities systematically. 2 Two books are recommended. You should find them both useful as you strive to understand literary theory. • Furniss, T & Bath, M. 1996. Reading poetry: an introduction. London: Prentice Hall. • Wainwright, J. 2004. Poetry: the basics. London: Routledge. Visit the following website for more information on Wainwright's book: At the end of each study unit we supply a brief summary of the learning matter that we have worked through. A reading list for enrichment is provided as well. We recommend that you consult these sources in order to expand your knowledge. This part of the module section consists of six study units. The first five study units deal with theoretical aspects, but the approach followed is as practical as possible. The last study unit serves as a test of what you have learned in the previous five study units. In this online study guide we focus specifically on the "medium of poetry", in other words the technical or structural elements of the verse that communicate meaning in the poetic text. As a reader of poetry you will have to learn to look at and listen to poetic texts differently – in other words you will have to learn to know the "delicate web of words". Welcome once again. Good luck and enjoy your studies. THL1502/1 3 Study unit 1: What is poetry? 1.1 Introduction This study unit, which is presented in an interactive manner, explores the problems surrounding the recognition and definition of poetry. The variety of poetic articulations are explored by linking them to a wealth of examples. The point of departure for this section is therefore the formulation of a definition of poetry. The theoretical approach followed in this section is discussed at the end of this study unit. 1.2 An interactive exploration Poetry is a very old art form whose medium is language. It may be assumed that most literate people, and even people who are illiterate but have been exposed to oral recitation, would have no trouble in recognising a poem. Kirsznen and Mandell (2004:550) point out that scholars of poetry or even poets themselves find it difficult to define poetry. An amusing anecdote is told about IA Richards. As a lecturer and leading figure in the AngloAmerican New Criticism movement he gave his students at one of his lectures a poem to analyse – a list of names that the previous lecturer had written on the blackboard. The students were not told the true nature of what he had written on the board. They set to work eagerly and discussed, analysed and interpreted the names as if they were a poem. What does this anecdote mean? Was it a cynical joke or an indication that the status of literary texts depends on the context in which they figure? To put this differently, is it true that poetry cannot be distinguished from other texts unless it is explicitly presented to the readers as poetry in books or in lectures? Can any text be a poem? If the answer to all these questions is "No", then how can poems be distinguished from other texts? Despite the fact that we were all exposed to poetry at school or possibly at university, our assumption about what poetry is may well be based on preconceived or limited models. The fact is, however, that poetry can take various forms. In the General Introduction of this module, poetic, narrative and dramatic texts are distinguished from one another on the basis of Plato's typology of literature. The determinants are the number of speakers and the function of each of the speakers in the poetic, narrative and dramatic texts. This distinction is a simplification. Plato's typology depends on only one poetic form, namely the lyrical poem. This is why he divided literary genres into "lyrical", "epic" and "dramatic" texts. Lyrical poetry is an important subgenre of poetry but it cannot be a model for all poetry. This is the only form of poetry in which there is usually, but not necessarily, a single speaker, addressing an isolated reader or listener. The monologic communication situation doesn't apply to oral poetry. Recited poetry is addressed to a crowd. They respond by means of a dynamic dialogue in which, as the audience, they form an integral part of the poetic recitation and reception process. Today the oral tradition is evident in the recited poetry of "rap" and "performance" poets throughout the world. Furthermore, the classical epic, which is a narrative poem, is written in verse form. 4 We can conclude from the above that a poem may be narrative, dramatic or lyrical. It is also possible for all these aspects to be found in one poem. World literature is full of these hybrid or mixed forms. Answer the questions in "Activity 1.1" found under Additional Resources to discover the variety of poetic forms on your own. ACTIVITY 1.1 Read through an anthology of poems by a large number of poets and do the following: (1) Write down the title of the anthology and the name of the compiler. (2) Identify a poem in which there is a single speaker and write down the title of the poem and the name of the poet. (3) Identify a poem in which there is more than one speaker and write down the title of the poem and the name of the poet. (4) Identify a poem in which a story is told and write down the title of the poem and the name of the poet. (5) Write short notes on what you have learned from this activity. The aim of the above activity is to spur you on to discover the variety of poetic forms on your own. This emphasises the fact that basic genre classifications are necessary and important, but that we also need to note that all genre forms show an internal diversity that oversteps and disregards rigid classification guidelines. This does not mean, however, that we can get away from the necessity for clear and theoretically defensible distinctions between the various literary genres. 1.3 Closer descriptions and definitions of poetry Answer the following questions: 1. Is it important for scholars and students of literature to be able to give precise definitions of literary genres? 2. Is it possible to reach a "final verdict" on literary genres as art forms? The above questions are related to the nature of theoretical approaches and the emphasis this places on the need for accurate definitions. Since the study object here is poetry, we should try to define poetry as accurately as possible. Poetic, narrative and dramatic texts are language objects. They can be distinguished from other forms of language use and communication because they are specific forms of linguistic art. In defining poetry, we therefore have to proceed from the hypothesis that language is an aesthetic phenomenon. What does this involve? Refer to the title, "the fine, fine net of the word" at the beginning of this part. It is a quotation from Raka, a poem by NP van Wyk Louw. This poem is an epic or a narrative poem in which the life and fortunes of a heroic figure are depicted. The poem tells the story of the life of Koki, the leader of a community somewhere in Africa. Koki is threatened by Raka, a figure who is half THL1502/1 5 man and half animal and who penetrates the tribe in order to take it over. In the following passage Koki addresses the members of his community: ... Does he Raka, the strong beast know our fine, fine net of the word, with which we fetch shining and fat fish from many waters? (1) What do you think of the phrase "our fine, fine net/of the word" refers to? (2) Why does Koki refer to Raka as "the strong beast" and how is this related to the possible meaning of the phrase? (3) How do you understand the phrase "with which/we fetch shining and fat/fish from many waters"? (4) Why do you think the word "fine" is repeated in the phrase? (5) What is the relationship between language and poetry as reflected by the above passage? Share your thoughts on these questions in the Discussion Forum under the heading "Poetry as a special kind of linguistic phenomenon". The above activity is intended to draw you attention to the fact that poetry is a special kind of linguistic phenomenon. Language is a supple network of signs. It is an instrument for use in all domains of knowledge, and it can catch many "shining and fat fish from many water". In this sense it is a net. In poetry language takes on a highly refined form. Then it becomes a "fine, fine net" of form and meaning. It is the repetition of "fine" that draws the reader's attention to the fact that we are dealing here with both language and poetry. Complete the questions of "Activity 1.2" found under Additional Resources. ACTIVITY 1.2 Read the texts below: Text 1: ROBBEN ISLAND 1 Out there, with little else to do, A man might spend a year or two Holding within his splendid view 2 A mountain mutable, no less Than the city of changefulness Crooked in its cradling careee; 3 For there's a third-degree, a fray Of time and tide fretting away From Rocklands round to Graiger Bay; 4 But slowly, slow as time is to A man with little else to do 6 But gaze and gaze on a splendid view. (Dederick in Cope, J & Krige, U. 1966:72) Text 2: "LAUGHTER and forgetting" For some, Tsotsi provided heart-stoppingly dramatic movements of violence; for others it was a laugh a minute. Justice Malala can't help but wonder why. IT WAS such an obvious truth that I had never ever given it a second thought. And yet, when it was said out loud, its implications rammed at me with such a horror that I felt like something was falling on me ... (Malala, 2006:12) Text 3: The Accident A MAN CARRYING a packet of tomatoes was knocked down by a car, as he was crossing Cripps Road. He travelled in the air for twenty feet before he dropped to the side of the road. No one actually saw him hit. He fell on his left side and face and did not move. His thigh was broken and twisted under him so that the foot faced backwards. His left arm lay twisted under him and the right was flung out backwards, palm up, as if he was asking for something ... (Mungoshi, 1991:55) Text 4: The blood knot MORRIS: How did it go today? ZACHARIAH: He's got me standing again. MORRIS: At the gate? ZACHARIAH: Ja. MORRIS: But didn't you tell him, Zach? I told you to tell him that your feet are calloused and that you wanted to go back to pots. ZACHARIAH: I did. MORRIS: And then? ZACHARIAH: He said, "Go to the gate or go to hell." (Fugard,1965:6) Here we are dealing with differences of degree. To explain: Read the titles of each of the texts above again. Can you see that the Fugard text, for example, is very "different" from the newspaper report? Look at the way the poem is printed. It contains no punctuation. The dramatic text also looks completely different. (1) What do the four texts have in common? (2) Which text does the phrase "Fine, fine net of the word" most appropriately refer to? Write down the number and title of the text in question. (3) Name and describe all the differences in language use and text form that you can identify between Text 1 and the other three texts. (4) Consult any English literary dictionary and write down the meanings of each of the four terms, genre, prose, drama and poetry. (5) Name the genres under which the four texts quoted above fall on the basis of your answer to question 4 above. THL1502/1 7 ANSWERS ACTIVITY 1.2 (1) They all deal with some form of injustice or cruelty (2) "Robben Island" – R Dederick (3) Text 1 is written in verse form. Text 2 is written in factual prose. Text 3 is written in descriptive prose. Text 4 is written in dialogue form 1 (4) Genre: Odendal and Gouws (2000:276) describe this as a kind or type especially of literature and art. Novel: Odendal and Gouws (2000:924) define this as a story in prose of considerable length in which a number of connected episodes are recounted. Poetry: This consists of poems. Drama: This is a direct presentation through action, dialogue, mime and gesture, usually a representation of a clash between people and/or in a person's mind (Odendal & Gouws 2000:147). (5) Text 1: Poetry Text 2: Newspaper report Text 3: Prose or narrative Text 4: Drama All the above texts deal with human conflict and violence from various eras in the history of South African society. The content therefore has a lot in common and the texts are similar in that respect. The feature that distinguishes the texts from one another is their difference in form. It is these differences in form that make it possible to identify texts as specific genres. Text 1 is a poem. It consists of short phrases without capitals and punctuation. It is divided into stanzas and the language used is not immediately accessible or comprehensible. Text 2 is a newspaper report. It is written in full sentences, with punctuation, and is a report on a murder. The language is easy to understand. Text 3 is a dramatic text. It consists of a dialogue between two characters and includes stage directions. Text 4 is a story. It describes an accident in which a child was run over and killed. It consists of descriptive prose with full sentences, dialogue and punctuation. The differences between the texts indicate how form can be used to distinguish texts from one another. This is the basis for genre classification. On the basis of Activity 1.2 we are now going to attempt to define poetry. We will give a definition from an ordinary dictionary first and follow this with one from a literary dictionary. We will then formulate a definition of poetry for use specifically with this module. The Oxford English Dictionary defines poetry as follows: Art or work of the poet; elevated expression of elevated thought or feeling in metrical form ... In turn "metre" is defined as: "any form of poetic rhythm determined by the character and number of feet". This definition identifies metre as the distinguishing form of poetry and refers to the elevated nature of the content. Metre, however, is only one feature of poetic texts. The above dictionary definition does not give the reader a concise and accurate definition of poetry. JA Cudden's Dictionary of literary terms and literary theory defines poetry thus; It is a comprehensive term which can be taken to cover any kind of metrical composition. This definition is not very helpful either. 8 It is therefore not unusual to find that even after extensive research it is difficult to arrive at a satisfactory definition of poetry. Kirszner and MandeU's (2004:550) definition is closer to the mark: One way of defining poetry is to say that it uses language to condense experience into an intensely concentrated package with each sound, each word and each image carrying great weight. This is a very useful definition. It draws our attention to the fact that poems, except for epic poems, are more condensed than narrative and dramatic texts. It also draws our attention to the way in which words, images and sounds in poetry are loaded with meaning. The definition states that poetry "condenses experience" but shies away from the technical concepts in poetry. It is nevertheless a useful point of departure for a definition that is well grounded in theory. 1.3.1 A definition of poetry In THL1501 (Introduction to Theory of Literature) the question: "What is a theory?" is answered as follows: "A theory defines, describes and/or explains object, events or phenomena." The object being defined here is poetry or poetic texts in general and not a specific text. A theoretically grounded definition must define poetry as accurately as possible because it will direct the systematic description and explanation of poetry as a literary phenomenon. The word poetry is derived from the Latin "poetria", which comes from the Greek "pots". This means "do" or "create". The following definition is suggested: Poetry is a literary art form which consists of lines of verse and in which the figurative, syntactical, typographic, strophic and sound-related elements of language are creatively exploited and charged with meaning in order to achieve a variety of poeticcommunicative effects. This definition was formulated for the purposes of this module. This is what distinguishes poetry as a genre from other literary forms and other forms of communication. It identifies the main elements of poetry: (1) figurative language, (2) syntax, (3) typography, (4) metrical structure, (5) stanza structure and (6) sound. These aspects are the building blocks of poetry. Each of these aspects will be defined and discussed in subsequent study units. Share your thoughts on the following questions in the Discussion Forum under the heading "A definition of poetry": (1) Compare the definition of poetry which you looked up for Activity 1.5(4) with the definition formulated for the purposes of this module. Write down the similarities and differences between the two. (2) Do you think the definition formulated for the purposes of this module is satisfactory? Explain your answer. (3) If your answer to (2) was "No", formulate your own definition of poetry and briefly explain why it is better than the definition formulated for the purposes of this module. Complete the questions for "Activity 1.3" found under Additional Resources. THL1502/1 9 ACTIVITY 1.3 Read the poem, "ROBBEN ISLAND" and answer the following questions: ROBBEN ISLAND 1 Out there, with little else to do, A man might spend a year or two Holding within his splendid view 2 A mountain mutable, no less Than the city of changefulness Crooked in its cradling careee; 3 For there's a third-degree, a fray Of time and tide fretting away From Rocklands round to Graiger Bay; 4 But slowly, slow as time is to A man with little else to do But gaze and gaze on a splendid view. (Dederick in Cope, J & Krige, U. 1966:72) (1) Give two examples of the figurative use of language in the poem. (2) Which examples of syntactic parallelism (similarities) can you find in stanza 1 and the last stanza? (3) Identify an example of unusual syntactical structuring in stanza 2, for example unusual word order. (4) Give examples of sound repetition such as alliteration and assonance (see study unit 4). (5) The words "gaze" and "splendid" in the concluding line each contain a particular metrical pattern. Name this pattern (see study unit 5). ANSWERS ACTIVITY 1.3 Individual answers must be given to all the questions. (1) "A mountain mutable" and "a fray of time and tide fretting away" (2) The sentence construction "... with little else to do" (3) "A mountain mutable, ..." (4) Alliteration: "A man might spend ..." "A mountain mutable ..." "Crooked in its cradling caress" "But slowly, slow as time is to ..." "From Rocklands round to Graiger Bay; ..." "But gaze and gaze.