ANA 209 UKY EXAM 4 – ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE,
PRACTICE QUESTIONS & REVIEW 2026/2027
Hormone - ANS ✔✔chemical messengers in the bloodstream, they stimulate responses and are secreted
from endocrine glands
Endocrine System - ANS ✔✔glands that secrete internally and have no ducts, the effects are slower and
last longer than nervous system effects
Neuroendocrine Cells - ANS ✔✔cells that receive neural input and release hormones due to the signal
Target cell of corticotropin-releasing hormone - ANS ✔✔anterior pituitary
Location and anatomy of adrenal gland - ANS ✔✔attached to the superior aspect of the kidney
two parts (1) adrenal cortex, (2) adrenal medulla
triangle shaped, 1.5 by 3 inches
hormones from cortex = essential for life
hormones from medulla = not
Location and anatomy of thymus - ANS ✔✔in the mediastinum superior to the heart
larger in children than in adults
site for white blood cell maturation
Hormones that effect blood pressure - ANS ✔✔Aldosterone, angiotensin II, atrial natriuretic peptides
(ANP), vasopressin, norepinephrine/epinephrine, nitric oxide gas
What glands regress after childhood? - ANS ✔✔thymus and pineal gland
What hormones does the thymus release? - ANS ✔✔thymopoietin and thymosin, which regulate T-
lymphocytes
What hormones does the pineal gland release? - ANS ✔✔melatonin, thought to play a role in circadian
rhythms and mood
Origin and function of insulin - ANS ✔✔Origin = pancreas
Function = dec blood glucose levels by transporting glucose to body cells
Target cells = most body cells
Functions of respiratory system - ANS ✔✔-Gas exchange (O2 and CO2 between air and blood)
-Speech and vocalizations
-Olfaction (smell)
-Control of pH in body
-Aids in regulation of blood pressure by assisting in angiotensin II production
-Helps create pressure gradients for flow of lymph and venous blood
-Expulsion of abdominal contents (defecation)
, Correct order of which air flows to the respiratory tract - ANS ✔✔Nose -> pharynx -> epiglottis -> larynx -
> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> lungs -> alveoli
Boundary between upper and lower respiratory tracts - ANS ✔✔larynx
Central Chemoreceptors - ANS ✔✔brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of CSF
Peripheral Chemoreceptors - ANS ✔✔neurons in aortal wall and carotid arteries, respond to changes in
pH, O2, and CO2 content of blood
Role of Medulla and Pons in respiration - ANS ✔✔set unconscious breathing rhythm
(1) ventral respiratory group - set the basic cycle of inspiration and expiration
(2) dorsal respiratory group - receives input from pontine respiratory group, chemoreceptors, and stretch
receptors in lung and modulates output from ventral resp group to modulate breathing
The roles of the diaphragm in breathing and its position in relation to lung - ANS ✔✔Prime mover of
pulmonary ventilation
Contraction pulls down and inc thoracic cavity for inspiration
Relaxes for expiration
The position of epiglottis and its function - ANS ✔✔Flap of cartilage that overs windpipe when
swallowing, located at opening of trachea
Asthma - ANS ✔✔Wheeze, SOB, chest tightness, and cough
Diagnosis especially considered when there is in the symptoms and a history of atopy (syndrome
characterized by a tendency to be hyperallergenic)
symptoms of asthma are usually in response to an allergen, exercise or cold air, asthma is a REVERSIBLE
AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION
COPD - ANS ✔✔Characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is usually progressive and associated
with enhanced chronic inflammatory response in airways and lung
Exacerbations and comorbidities contribute to overall severity in individual patients
Primary cause of COPD is due to smoking (ask how many cigarettes smoked per day and individual
susceptibility)
Also caused by indoor/outdoor pollution from biomass fuels
Third cause can be due to alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency which should be considered in patients aged 40
or less with COPD
What is the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation to the lungs? - ANS
✔✔Parasympathetic: when relaxed keep the bronchioles partly constricted
Sympathetic: dilate bronchioles and increase airflow, during exercise
The tissue layers and sublayers of the wall of the digestive tract and the correct order from lumen to
external surface - ANS ✔✔Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa
PRACTICE QUESTIONS & REVIEW 2026/2027
Hormone - ANS ✔✔chemical messengers in the bloodstream, they stimulate responses and are secreted
from endocrine glands
Endocrine System - ANS ✔✔glands that secrete internally and have no ducts, the effects are slower and
last longer than nervous system effects
Neuroendocrine Cells - ANS ✔✔cells that receive neural input and release hormones due to the signal
Target cell of corticotropin-releasing hormone - ANS ✔✔anterior pituitary
Location and anatomy of adrenal gland - ANS ✔✔attached to the superior aspect of the kidney
two parts (1) adrenal cortex, (2) adrenal medulla
triangle shaped, 1.5 by 3 inches
hormones from cortex = essential for life
hormones from medulla = not
Location and anatomy of thymus - ANS ✔✔in the mediastinum superior to the heart
larger in children than in adults
site for white blood cell maturation
Hormones that effect blood pressure - ANS ✔✔Aldosterone, angiotensin II, atrial natriuretic peptides
(ANP), vasopressin, norepinephrine/epinephrine, nitric oxide gas
What glands regress after childhood? - ANS ✔✔thymus and pineal gland
What hormones does the thymus release? - ANS ✔✔thymopoietin and thymosin, which regulate T-
lymphocytes
What hormones does the pineal gland release? - ANS ✔✔melatonin, thought to play a role in circadian
rhythms and mood
Origin and function of insulin - ANS ✔✔Origin = pancreas
Function = dec blood glucose levels by transporting glucose to body cells
Target cells = most body cells
Functions of respiratory system - ANS ✔✔-Gas exchange (O2 and CO2 between air and blood)
-Speech and vocalizations
-Olfaction (smell)
-Control of pH in body
-Aids in regulation of blood pressure by assisting in angiotensin II production
-Helps create pressure gradients for flow of lymph and venous blood
-Expulsion of abdominal contents (defecation)
, Correct order of which air flows to the respiratory tract - ANS ✔✔Nose -> pharynx -> epiglottis -> larynx -
> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> lungs -> alveoli
Boundary between upper and lower respiratory tracts - ANS ✔✔larynx
Central Chemoreceptors - ANS ✔✔brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of CSF
Peripheral Chemoreceptors - ANS ✔✔neurons in aortal wall and carotid arteries, respond to changes in
pH, O2, and CO2 content of blood
Role of Medulla and Pons in respiration - ANS ✔✔set unconscious breathing rhythm
(1) ventral respiratory group - set the basic cycle of inspiration and expiration
(2) dorsal respiratory group - receives input from pontine respiratory group, chemoreceptors, and stretch
receptors in lung and modulates output from ventral resp group to modulate breathing
The roles of the diaphragm in breathing and its position in relation to lung - ANS ✔✔Prime mover of
pulmonary ventilation
Contraction pulls down and inc thoracic cavity for inspiration
Relaxes for expiration
The position of epiglottis and its function - ANS ✔✔Flap of cartilage that overs windpipe when
swallowing, located at opening of trachea
Asthma - ANS ✔✔Wheeze, SOB, chest tightness, and cough
Diagnosis especially considered when there is in the symptoms and a history of atopy (syndrome
characterized by a tendency to be hyperallergenic)
symptoms of asthma are usually in response to an allergen, exercise or cold air, asthma is a REVERSIBLE
AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION
COPD - ANS ✔✔Characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is usually progressive and associated
with enhanced chronic inflammatory response in airways and lung
Exacerbations and comorbidities contribute to overall severity in individual patients
Primary cause of COPD is due to smoking (ask how many cigarettes smoked per day and individual
susceptibility)
Also caused by indoor/outdoor pollution from biomass fuels
Third cause can be due to alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency which should be considered in patients aged 40
or less with COPD
What is the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation to the lungs? - ANS
✔✔Parasympathetic: when relaxed keep the bronchioles partly constricted
Sympathetic: dilate bronchioles and increase airflow, during exercise
The tissue layers and sublayers of the wall of the digestive tract and the correct order from lumen to
external surface - ANS ✔✔Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa
