WGU D236 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY FINAL EXAM 2026 UPDATE
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY
GRADED A+ (BRAND NEW VISION)
Describe the function(s) of the following parts of a nephron: glomerulus, Bowman's
capsule, juxtaglomerular apparatus, proximal tubule, Loop of Henle, distal tubule, and
collecting duct. - ANS-A nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
The glomerulus, located in the Bowman's capsule is a group of capillaries that
use high hydrostatic pressure to push blood through the filtration process.
The glomerulus allows water, sodium, bicarbonate, acids and urea out of the
blood and into the Bowman's capsule. Large proteins cannot filter out.
As blood passes through the glomerulus the filtrates travel through the
juxtaglomerular apparatus, which responds to levels of sodium and potassium,
reabsorbing if needed.
It also secretes renin in response to low levels of sodium, initiating the RAAS
system. Next the filtrate heads through the proximal tube where approximately
60% of the water is reabsorbed into the blood.
The more concentrated filtrate the flows through the loop of Henle, which
secretes urea (nitrogenous waste), reabsorption od approximately 25% of
electrolytes and 15% of water is also reabsorbed.,
As this product is pushed through to the distal tubule, aldosterone is secreted
which acts to reabsorb more water and sodium into the blood and takes on
potassium from the blood, if needed the body will absorb more water to further
concentrate the urine.
The urine enters the collecting duct, where even more water is absorbed as
needed under the control of diuretic hormone. The final product can then be
excreted through the urethra
What are the common conditions that are risk factors to developing Chronic Renal
Failure?
Why do the initial stages of CRF have few problems that manifest in patients?
At which stage does End Stage Renal Disease begin? - ANS-Diabetes, hypertension,
glomerulonephritis, and PKD.
,As many as 75% of nephrons are healthy during initial stages and can
compensate Stage 5 with GFR below 15 mL/min
Describe at least 3 problems observed throughout the body as a result of End
Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) and why this problem is caused by poor kidney
function.
What are the two treatments for ESRD? - ANS-Uremic frost from high urea,
hypertension from elevated renin, anemia from lack of EPO, etc.,Kidney
transplant and dialysis,Problems that are commonly associated with ESRD are
edema, hypertension and uremic frost.
Edema and hypertension occur due to kidneys not being able to filter water out of
the bloodstream.
Swelling and increased blood pressure result. Uremic frost occurs because urea
builds up in the body and as one sweats urea is deposited on the skin forming
crystals as the sweat evaporates.
Treatments for ESRD are kidney transplant and dialysis.
What are two differences between hemodialysis and Continuous Renal Replacement
Therapy (CRRT)?
Why might CRRT be the preferred treatment over hemodialysis? - ANS-CRRT is
slower than hemodialysis and for longer periods of time (24 hours or longer).
CRRT patients are typically demonstrating signs of acute renal failure, but also
are critically ill or hemodynamically unstable (having trouble maintaining blood
pressure)
Why is the Pituitary gland considered the Master gland of the endocrine system?
Describe any two disorders of your choice that are caused by pituitary gland dysfunction
- ANS-1. The pituitary is considered the master gland because it either makes and
secretes or stores and secretes the majority of the tropic hormones.,
2. Diabetes insipidus is a hypopituitarism disorder in which ADH is not secreted
from the posterior pituitary. This results in kidney malfunction because the
nephron will not reabsorb water, leading to loss of water in the urine and
concentration of sodium in the blood. Dehydration and hyperatremia result.,
3. Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) is the opposite disorder -
hyperpituitarism resulting in excessive secretion of ADH. This can result from
brain injury or neurosurgery. ADH leads to too much reabsorption in the
,nephrons of the kidneys, concentrating urine and leading to hypervolemia (fluid
overload) and hyponatremia.
Compare hormonal vs neural signals. Comment on the need for these differences
based on the response time required.
Hint: Think about the steroidal vs non-steroidal hormone response to electrochemical
signals fired by neurons - ANS-Both hormonal and neural signals are required for
our body to respond to environmental and developmental changes.
Neuronal responses are almost immediate, allowing responses such as the ability
to move and balance, the 5 senses, and the regulation of autonomic responses.
Hormonal responses are more long term, allowing reactions that can occur over
several minutes or even over several days!
This allows for negative feedback loops to occur to maintain our body's
responses over a longer period.
Give an example of primary hyperthyroid disease.
Describe the pathophysiology and manifestations of this disease. - ANS-Primary
hyperthyroid disease occurs when thyroid-stimulating antibodies activate the
thyroid itself to secrete excess T3 and T4.
Grave's Disease is a very common example, and manifests with an enlarge
thyroid, nervousness, insomnia, sensitivity to heat, weight loss, and potentially
cardiac arrhythmia.
Exophthalmos may also result due to extraocular deposits that push the eyes
forward and can cause edema - this will result in visual impairment if it is
prolonged.
Describe the negative feedback loop utilized by the endocrine system with an example
of a marathon runner - ANS-A negative feedback loop occurs when the build up of
one molecule leads to the repression of the response that creates the molecule.
The example of a marathon runner occurs with negative feedback between the
hypothalamus and the metabolic muscles and organs of the body.
The hypothalamus secretes CRF during the marathon, simulating the release of
ACTH from the pituitary. This causes cortisol release from the adrenal gland,
ultimately leading to the "fight or flight" response that stimulates metabolism in
the muscles and organs.
, The cortisol feeds back to the pituitary, shutting off the stimulus to the adrenal
gland, and thus creating the negative feedback loop.,
When an individual is running in a marathon, the hypothalamus receives signals from
the body that the muscles and organs have extra metabolic needs.
The hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), which stimulates the
pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland secretes ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone), which, in turn,
stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete the hormone cortisol.
As cortisol levels in the bloodstream rise, the pituitary senses the increased level and
shuts off the stimulus to the adrenal gland; this is an example of the endocrine negative
feedback system
Why is Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) a more significant problem for Type 1 Diabetes
Mellitus than Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus? - ANS-Type 1 diabetes results from complete
lack of insulin whereas type 2 simply involves insulin resistance.
With complete lack of insulin, glucose cannot be absorbed at all by the tissues, leading
to a "starvation" response from the body. The starvation response leads to the
breakdown of fat and subsequence ketogenesis, resulting in excessive ketone body
production.
In contract, there is still some glucose absorption,in Type 2 diabetes, which means the
starvation response is not initiating to the point of excessive ketogenesis.,
DKA is a result of increasing ketone concentration in the bloodstream.
In Type 1 Diabetes, there is no insulin, which causes the body to respond as if it is
starving, so glucagon will be released from the pancreas, leading to rampant lipid
breakdown, resulting in a high level of ketones in the blood.
However, in Type 2 Diabetes, there is still some insulin, though maybe less, and this
concentration will be enough to prevent DKA from occurring.
Explain how treatment of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) with
rehydration and insulin can cause serum hypokalemia. - ANS-HHS is a result of
intracellular fluid escaping into the bloodstream in response to high blood glucose
levels.
Intracellular potassium will follow the fluid such that blood serum levels of K+ will appear
normal or even high.
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY
GRADED A+ (BRAND NEW VISION)
Describe the function(s) of the following parts of a nephron: glomerulus, Bowman's
capsule, juxtaglomerular apparatus, proximal tubule, Loop of Henle, distal tubule, and
collecting duct. - ANS-A nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
The glomerulus, located in the Bowman's capsule is a group of capillaries that
use high hydrostatic pressure to push blood through the filtration process.
The glomerulus allows water, sodium, bicarbonate, acids and urea out of the
blood and into the Bowman's capsule. Large proteins cannot filter out.
As blood passes through the glomerulus the filtrates travel through the
juxtaglomerular apparatus, which responds to levels of sodium and potassium,
reabsorbing if needed.
It also secretes renin in response to low levels of sodium, initiating the RAAS
system. Next the filtrate heads through the proximal tube where approximately
60% of the water is reabsorbed into the blood.
The more concentrated filtrate the flows through the loop of Henle, which
secretes urea (nitrogenous waste), reabsorption od approximately 25% of
electrolytes and 15% of water is also reabsorbed.,
As this product is pushed through to the distal tubule, aldosterone is secreted
which acts to reabsorb more water and sodium into the blood and takes on
potassium from the blood, if needed the body will absorb more water to further
concentrate the urine.
The urine enters the collecting duct, where even more water is absorbed as
needed under the control of diuretic hormone. The final product can then be
excreted through the urethra
What are the common conditions that are risk factors to developing Chronic Renal
Failure?
Why do the initial stages of CRF have few problems that manifest in patients?
At which stage does End Stage Renal Disease begin? - ANS-Diabetes, hypertension,
glomerulonephritis, and PKD.
,As many as 75% of nephrons are healthy during initial stages and can
compensate Stage 5 with GFR below 15 mL/min
Describe at least 3 problems observed throughout the body as a result of End
Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) and why this problem is caused by poor kidney
function.
What are the two treatments for ESRD? - ANS-Uremic frost from high urea,
hypertension from elevated renin, anemia from lack of EPO, etc.,Kidney
transplant and dialysis,Problems that are commonly associated with ESRD are
edema, hypertension and uremic frost.
Edema and hypertension occur due to kidneys not being able to filter water out of
the bloodstream.
Swelling and increased blood pressure result. Uremic frost occurs because urea
builds up in the body and as one sweats urea is deposited on the skin forming
crystals as the sweat evaporates.
Treatments for ESRD are kidney transplant and dialysis.
What are two differences between hemodialysis and Continuous Renal Replacement
Therapy (CRRT)?
Why might CRRT be the preferred treatment over hemodialysis? - ANS-CRRT is
slower than hemodialysis and for longer periods of time (24 hours or longer).
CRRT patients are typically demonstrating signs of acute renal failure, but also
are critically ill or hemodynamically unstable (having trouble maintaining blood
pressure)
Why is the Pituitary gland considered the Master gland of the endocrine system?
Describe any two disorders of your choice that are caused by pituitary gland dysfunction
- ANS-1. The pituitary is considered the master gland because it either makes and
secretes or stores and secretes the majority of the tropic hormones.,
2. Diabetes insipidus is a hypopituitarism disorder in which ADH is not secreted
from the posterior pituitary. This results in kidney malfunction because the
nephron will not reabsorb water, leading to loss of water in the urine and
concentration of sodium in the blood. Dehydration and hyperatremia result.,
3. Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) is the opposite disorder -
hyperpituitarism resulting in excessive secretion of ADH. This can result from
brain injury or neurosurgery. ADH leads to too much reabsorption in the
,nephrons of the kidneys, concentrating urine and leading to hypervolemia (fluid
overload) and hyponatremia.
Compare hormonal vs neural signals. Comment on the need for these differences
based on the response time required.
Hint: Think about the steroidal vs non-steroidal hormone response to electrochemical
signals fired by neurons - ANS-Both hormonal and neural signals are required for
our body to respond to environmental and developmental changes.
Neuronal responses are almost immediate, allowing responses such as the ability
to move and balance, the 5 senses, and the regulation of autonomic responses.
Hormonal responses are more long term, allowing reactions that can occur over
several minutes or even over several days!
This allows for negative feedback loops to occur to maintain our body's
responses over a longer period.
Give an example of primary hyperthyroid disease.
Describe the pathophysiology and manifestations of this disease. - ANS-Primary
hyperthyroid disease occurs when thyroid-stimulating antibodies activate the
thyroid itself to secrete excess T3 and T4.
Grave's Disease is a very common example, and manifests with an enlarge
thyroid, nervousness, insomnia, sensitivity to heat, weight loss, and potentially
cardiac arrhythmia.
Exophthalmos may also result due to extraocular deposits that push the eyes
forward and can cause edema - this will result in visual impairment if it is
prolonged.
Describe the negative feedback loop utilized by the endocrine system with an example
of a marathon runner - ANS-A negative feedback loop occurs when the build up of
one molecule leads to the repression of the response that creates the molecule.
The example of a marathon runner occurs with negative feedback between the
hypothalamus and the metabolic muscles and organs of the body.
The hypothalamus secretes CRF during the marathon, simulating the release of
ACTH from the pituitary. This causes cortisol release from the adrenal gland,
ultimately leading to the "fight or flight" response that stimulates metabolism in
the muscles and organs.
, The cortisol feeds back to the pituitary, shutting off the stimulus to the adrenal
gland, and thus creating the negative feedback loop.,
When an individual is running in a marathon, the hypothalamus receives signals from
the body that the muscles and organs have extra metabolic needs.
The hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), which stimulates the
pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland secretes ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone), which, in turn,
stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete the hormone cortisol.
As cortisol levels in the bloodstream rise, the pituitary senses the increased level and
shuts off the stimulus to the adrenal gland; this is an example of the endocrine negative
feedback system
Why is Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) a more significant problem for Type 1 Diabetes
Mellitus than Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus? - ANS-Type 1 diabetes results from complete
lack of insulin whereas type 2 simply involves insulin resistance.
With complete lack of insulin, glucose cannot be absorbed at all by the tissues, leading
to a "starvation" response from the body. The starvation response leads to the
breakdown of fat and subsequence ketogenesis, resulting in excessive ketone body
production.
In contract, there is still some glucose absorption,in Type 2 diabetes, which means the
starvation response is not initiating to the point of excessive ketogenesis.,
DKA is a result of increasing ketone concentration in the bloodstream.
In Type 1 Diabetes, there is no insulin, which causes the body to respond as if it is
starving, so glucagon will be released from the pancreas, leading to rampant lipid
breakdown, resulting in a high level of ketones in the blood.
However, in Type 2 Diabetes, there is still some insulin, though maybe less, and this
concentration will be enough to prevent DKA from occurring.
Explain how treatment of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) with
rehydration and insulin can cause serum hypokalemia. - ANS-HHS is a result of
intracellular fluid escaping into the bloodstream in response to high blood glucose
levels.
Intracellular potassium will follow the fluid such that blood serum levels of K+ will appear
normal or even high.
