PSYC 140 Module 1 Exam | Questions & Answers
(Verified Answers) - Portage Learning ( 2026/2027
Update)
1. A researcher designs a study to examine the relationship between maternal stress during
pregnancy and infant temperament at 6 months. She measures maternal cortisol levels at three
time points during pregnancy and uses a standard temperament questionnaire at 6 months. Which
of the following research designs best describes this study?
A. Experimental design with random assignment
B. Longitudinal correlational design
C. Cross-sectional correlational design
D. Quasi-experimental design with nonequivalent groups
Answer: B
Rationale: The study involves measuring variables (cortisol and temperament) over time without
manipulation or random assignment. This is a longitudinal correlational design. Option A is incorrect
because there is no random assignment. Option C is incorrect because data are collected across time,
not at one point. Option D is incorrect because there is no comparison group or intervention.
2. According to Piaget's theory, a child who has mastered object permanence but fails conservation
tasks is most likely in which stage? A child who can think abstractly about hypothetical situations
is in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor; Formal operational
B. Preoperational; Formal operational
C. Preoperational; Concrete operational
D. Concrete operational; Formal operational
Answer: B
Rationale: Object permanence is mastered in the sensorimotor stage, but the question says the child has
mastered it and fails conservation—characteristic of preoperational thought. Abstract hypothetical
reasoning defines formal operations. Option A is incorrect because object permanence is sensorimotor,
but the child described is past that. Option C incorrectly pairs preoperational with concrete operational.
Option D is incorrect because conservation is achieved in concrete operational stage.
3. In a study of attachment, a 14-month-old infant explores a playroom but periodically returns to
the caregiver. When the caregiver leaves, the infant becomes moderately distressed, but upon
reunion, the infant approaches, calms quickly, and resumes play. This pattern is most consistent
with which attachment classification?
A. Secure attachment
B. Insecure-avoidant attachment
Page 1
,C. Insecure-resistant attachment
D. Disorganized attachment
Answer: A
Rationale: The infant uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration, shows moderate distress at
separation, and is easily comforted upon reunion—hallmarks of secure attachment. Avoidant infants
ignore the caregiver; resistant infants show ambivalence and difficulty calming; disorganized infants
display contradictory behaviors. Thus, A is correct.
4. A developmental psychologist argues that children's cognitive development is driven by internal,
stage-like changes that are universal across cultures. This view is most consistent with which
theoretical perspective?
A. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
B. Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
C. Information processing theory
D. Dynamic systems theory
Answer: B
Rationale: Piaget's theory emphasizes universal, stage-like cognitive changes driven by maturation.
Vygotsky's theory (A) emphasizes social and cultural influences. Information processing (C) focuses on
continuous, quantitative changes. Dynamic systems (D) emphasizes variability and context. Thus, B is
correct.
5. A researcher wants to examine whether a new parenting program improves children's executive
function. She assigns families to either the program or a waitlist control based on the day they
enroll (Monday/Wednesday groups get the program, Tuesday/Thursday groups are waitlist). This
design is best described as:
A. True experiment
B. Quasi-experiment
C. Correlational study
D. Single-case design
Answer: B
Rationale: Assignment is not random; it is based on enrollment day, making it a quasi-experiment. A true
experiment requires random assignment. Correlational studies lack manipulation. Single-case designs
focus on one participant. Thus, B is correct.
6. Which of the following is a key limitation of cross-sectional research designs in developmental
psychology?
A. They cannot establish correlation between variables.
B. They are vulnerable to cohort effects.
C. They require long time periods and are expensive.
D. They cannot examine age-related changes within individuals.
Answer: B
Rationale: Cross-sectional designs compare different age groups at one time, so cohort effects
(generational differences) confound age differences. Option A is false; cross-sectional studies can show
Page 2
,correlations. Option C describes longitudinal designs. Option D is true but not a limitation;
cross-sectional designs are not meant to track within-individual change. B is the best answer.
7. A researcher finds that children who watch more educational television have higher vocabulary
scores. However, after controlling for parental education and income, the relationship disappears.
This suggests that parental education and income are:
A. Confounding variables
B. Mediating variables
C. Moderating variables
D. Independent variables
Answer: A
Rationale: Confounding variables are third variables that influence both the independent and dependent
variables, creating a spurious relationship. Here, parental education and income affect both TV
watching and vocabulary, and controlling them eliminates the association. Mediating variables explain
the mechanism, moderators affect the strength/direction, and independent variables are manipulated.
Thus, A is correct.
8. According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, an infant who develops a sense of trust is most likely
to have experienced:
A. Consistent and responsive caregiving
B. Encouragement of independence and exploration
C. Clear boundaries and discipline
D. Opportunities for cooperative play
Answer: A
Rationale: Erikson's first stage (trust vs. mistrust) is resolved when caregivers provide consistent,
responsive care, leading the infant to view the world as safe. Option B relates to autonomy vs.
shame/doubt (toddlerhood). Option C relates to initiative vs. guilt (preschool). Option D relates to
industry vs. inferiority (school age). Thus, A is correct.
9. A researcher uses a quasi-experimental design to evaluate a school-based anti-bullying program.
She measures bullying incidents before and after the program in one school, and compares them to
a matched school that did not implement the program. This design is:
A. Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design
B. Interrupted time series design
C. Solomon four-group design
D. Posttest-only control group design
Answer: A
Rationale: The design includes a pretest, a posttest, and a nonrandomly assigned control group, making
it a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. Interrupted time series (B) would involve
multiple pre- and post-measures. Solomon four-group (C) includes additional groups to control for
pretest effects. Posttest-only (D) lacks a pretest. Thus, A is correct.
Page 3
, 10. Which of the following statements best reflects the concept of 'equifinality' in developmental
psychopathology?
A. Different developmental pathways can lead to the same outcome.
B. The same early experience leads to the same outcome for all individuals.
C. Outcomes are determined solely by genetic factors.
D. Development proceeds through a fixed sequence of stages.
Answer: A
Rationale: Equifinality refers to the idea that multiple different risk factors or pathways can result in the
same developmental outcome (e.g., different childhood adversities leading to depression). Option B
describes multifinality (same experience, different outcomes). Option C is genetic determinism. Option D
is stage theory. Thus, A is correct.
11. A researcher designs a study to examine the neural correlates of working memory using fMRI.
Participants perform a delayed match-to-sample task while being scanned. The researcher
hypothesizes that activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) will be positively
correlated with task accuracy. However, the results show that DLPFC activation is negatively
correlated with accuracy. Which of the following interpretations best reconciles this finding with
existing literature?
A. The DLPFC is not involved in working memory; the finding contradicts established models.
B. Individuals with lower accuracy may require greater DLPFC recruitment to achieve suboptimal performance,
reflecting a compensatory mechanism.
C. The negative correlation indicates that DLPFC activation impairs working memory performance.
D. The finding is likely due to a Type I error and should be disregarded.
Answer: B
Rationale: The negative correlation suggests that as accuracy decreases, DLPFC activation increases.
This is consistent with the idea that less efficient brains need to recruit more neural resources to perform
the task, a phenomenon often observed in aging or high-demand conditions. Option B captures this
compensatory interpretation. Option A is too absolute; DLPFC is well-established in working memory.
Option C reverses causality. Option D dismisses a plausible finding prematurely.
12. A clinical trial tests a new intervention for social anxiety disorder. The treatment group shows a
statistically significant reduction in Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) scores compared to the
control group (p = 0.04). However, the effect size is small (Cohen's d = 0.2). Which of the following
is the most appropriate conclusion?
A. The intervention is clinically meaningful because it achieved statistical significance.
B. The small effect size suggests the result may be due to chance despite the significant p-value.
C. The intervention has a statistically significant but potentially limited clinical impact, and further research is
needed to assess practical significance.
D. The intervention is ineffective because Cohen's d is below 0.5.
Answer: C
Rationale: Statistical significance indicates that the observed difference is unlikely due to chance, but
effect size (Cohen's d) quantifies the magnitude of the effect. A small effect size (0.2) suggests that the
average benefit may be modest. Clinical significance depends on context, and further studies should
evaluate whether the benefit is meaningful to patients. Option A overstates clinical relevance. Option B
Page 4
(Verified Answers) - Portage Learning ( 2026/2027
Update)
1. A researcher designs a study to examine the relationship between maternal stress during
pregnancy and infant temperament at 6 months. She measures maternal cortisol levels at three
time points during pregnancy and uses a standard temperament questionnaire at 6 months. Which
of the following research designs best describes this study?
A. Experimental design with random assignment
B. Longitudinal correlational design
C. Cross-sectional correlational design
D. Quasi-experimental design with nonequivalent groups
Answer: B
Rationale: The study involves measuring variables (cortisol and temperament) over time without
manipulation or random assignment. This is a longitudinal correlational design. Option A is incorrect
because there is no random assignment. Option C is incorrect because data are collected across time,
not at one point. Option D is incorrect because there is no comparison group or intervention.
2. According to Piaget's theory, a child who has mastered object permanence but fails conservation
tasks is most likely in which stage? A child who can think abstractly about hypothetical situations
is in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor; Formal operational
B. Preoperational; Formal operational
C. Preoperational; Concrete operational
D. Concrete operational; Formal operational
Answer: B
Rationale: Object permanence is mastered in the sensorimotor stage, but the question says the child has
mastered it and fails conservation—characteristic of preoperational thought. Abstract hypothetical
reasoning defines formal operations. Option A is incorrect because object permanence is sensorimotor,
but the child described is past that. Option C incorrectly pairs preoperational with concrete operational.
Option D is incorrect because conservation is achieved in concrete operational stage.
3. In a study of attachment, a 14-month-old infant explores a playroom but periodically returns to
the caregiver. When the caregiver leaves, the infant becomes moderately distressed, but upon
reunion, the infant approaches, calms quickly, and resumes play. This pattern is most consistent
with which attachment classification?
A. Secure attachment
B. Insecure-avoidant attachment
Page 1
,C. Insecure-resistant attachment
D. Disorganized attachment
Answer: A
Rationale: The infant uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration, shows moderate distress at
separation, and is easily comforted upon reunion—hallmarks of secure attachment. Avoidant infants
ignore the caregiver; resistant infants show ambivalence and difficulty calming; disorganized infants
display contradictory behaviors. Thus, A is correct.
4. A developmental psychologist argues that children's cognitive development is driven by internal,
stage-like changes that are universal across cultures. This view is most consistent with which
theoretical perspective?
A. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
B. Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory
C. Information processing theory
D. Dynamic systems theory
Answer: B
Rationale: Piaget's theory emphasizes universal, stage-like cognitive changes driven by maturation.
Vygotsky's theory (A) emphasizes social and cultural influences. Information processing (C) focuses on
continuous, quantitative changes. Dynamic systems (D) emphasizes variability and context. Thus, B is
correct.
5. A researcher wants to examine whether a new parenting program improves children's executive
function. She assigns families to either the program or a waitlist control based on the day they
enroll (Monday/Wednesday groups get the program, Tuesday/Thursday groups are waitlist). This
design is best described as:
A. True experiment
B. Quasi-experiment
C. Correlational study
D. Single-case design
Answer: B
Rationale: Assignment is not random; it is based on enrollment day, making it a quasi-experiment. A true
experiment requires random assignment. Correlational studies lack manipulation. Single-case designs
focus on one participant. Thus, B is correct.
6. Which of the following is a key limitation of cross-sectional research designs in developmental
psychology?
A. They cannot establish correlation between variables.
B. They are vulnerable to cohort effects.
C. They require long time periods and are expensive.
D. They cannot examine age-related changes within individuals.
Answer: B
Rationale: Cross-sectional designs compare different age groups at one time, so cohort effects
(generational differences) confound age differences. Option A is false; cross-sectional studies can show
Page 2
,correlations. Option C describes longitudinal designs. Option D is true but not a limitation;
cross-sectional designs are not meant to track within-individual change. B is the best answer.
7. A researcher finds that children who watch more educational television have higher vocabulary
scores. However, after controlling for parental education and income, the relationship disappears.
This suggests that parental education and income are:
A. Confounding variables
B. Mediating variables
C. Moderating variables
D. Independent variables
Answer: A
Rationale: Confounding variables are third variables that influence both the independent and dependent
variables, creating a spurious relationship. Here, parental education and income affect both TV
watching and vocabulary, and controlling them eliminates the association. Mediating variables explain
the mechanism, moderators affect the strength/direction, and independent variables are manipulated.
Thus, A is correct.
8. According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, an infant who develops a sense of trust is most likely
to have experienced:
A. Consistent and responsive caregiving
B. Encouragement of independence and exploration
C. Clear boundaries and discipline
D. Opportunities for cooperative play
Answer: A
Rationale: Erikson's first stage (trust vs. mistrust) is resolved when caregivers provide consistent,
responsive care, leading the infant to view the world as safe. Option B relates to autonomy vs.
shame/doubt (toddlerhood). Option C relates to initiative vs. guilt (preschool). Option D relates to
industry vs. inferiority (school age). Thus, A is correct.
9. A researcher uses a quasi-experimental design to evaluate a school-based anti-bullying program.
She measures bullying incidents before and after the program in one school, and compares them to
a matched school that did not implement the program. This design is:
A. Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design
B. Interrupted time series design
C. Solomon four-group design
D. Posttest-only control group design
Answer: A
Rationale: The design includes a pretest, a posttest, and a nonrandomly assigned control group, making
it a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. Interrupted time series (B) would involve
multiple pre- and post-measures. Solomon four-group (C) includes additional groups to control for
pretest effects. Posttest-only (D) lacks a pretest. Thus, A is correct.
Page 3
, 10. Which of the following statements best reflects the concept of 'equifinality' in developmental
psychopathology?
A. Different developmental pathways can lead to the same outcome.
B. The same early experience leads to the same outcome for all individuals.
C. Outcomes are determined solely by genetic factors.
D. Development proceeds through a fixed sequence of stages.
Answer: A
Rationale: Equifinality refers to the idea that multiple different risk factors or pathways can result in the
same developmental outcome (e.g., different childhood adversities leading to depression). Option B
describes multifinality (same experience, different outcomes). Option C is genetic determinism. Option D
is stage theory. Thus, A is correct.
11. A researcher designs a study to examine the neural correlates of working memory using fMRI.
Participants perform a delayed match-to-sample task while being scanned. The researcher
hypothesizes that activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) will be positively
correlated with task accuracy. However, the results show that DLPFC activation is negatively
correlated with accuracy. Which of the following interpretations best reconciles this finding with
existing literature?
A. The DLPFC is not involved in working memory; the finding contradicts established models.
B. Individuals with lower accuracy may require greater DLPFC recruitment to achieve suboptimal performance,
reflecting a compensatory mechanism.
C. The negative correlation indicates that DLPFC activation impairs working memory performance.
D. The finding is likely due to a Type I error and should be disregarded.
Answer: B
Rationale: The negative correlation suggests that as accuracy decreases, DLPFC activation increases.
This is consistent with the idea that less efficient brains need to recruit more neural resources to perform
the task, a phenomenon often observed in aging or high-demand conditions. Option B captures this
compensatory interpretation. Option A is too absolute; DLPFC is well-established in working memory.
Option C reverses causality. Option D dismisses a plausible finding prematurely.
12. A clinical trial tests a new intervention for social anxiety disorder. The treatment group shows a
statistically significant reduction in Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) scores compared to the
control group (p = 0.04). However, the effect size is small (Cohen's d = 0.2). Which of the following
is the most appropriate conclusion?
A. The intervention is clinically meaningful because it achieved statistical significance.
B. The small effect size suggests the result may be due to chance despite the significant p-value.
C. The intervention has a statistically significant but potentially limited clinical impact, and further research is
needed to assess practical significance.
D. The intervention is ineffective because Cohen's d is below 0.5.
Answer: C
Rationale: Statistical significance indicates that the observed difference is unlikely due to chance, but
effect size (Cohen's d) quantifies the magnitude of the effect. A small effect size (0.2) suggests that the
average benefit may be modest. Clinical significance depends on context, and further studies should
evaluate whether the benefit is meaningful to patients. Option A overstates clinical relevance. Option B
Page 4
