ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
Contents
Background Principles And Justifications ............................................................................................... 3
Regulatory Options ................................................................................................................................. 12
Regulatory Process ................................................................................................................................... 16
Toxics Challenge And Regulating In Face Of Uncertainty..................................................................... 21
Regulatory Responses: Balancing Feasibility-Limited Regulation ...................................................... 24
Structure Of Act, Permitting, Technology-Based Limitations For “Point Sources” ............................ 28
Water Quality Standards & Tmdls............................................................................................................ 42
Wetlands Protection And § 404 Permit Program ..................................................................................... 43
CAA Basic Principles + Overview ........................................................................................................... 47
NAAQS .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Non-Attainment Program ......................................................................................................................... 57
New Source Review ................................................................................................................................. 58
Interstate Pollution ................................................................................................................................... 63
MOBILE SOURCE CONTROLS: Technology-Forcing Venture .......................................................... 67
Is It Fair To Let People Purchase The Right To Pollute? ...................................................................... 71
National Policy Act Of 1969 (NEPA) ...................................................................................................... 78
Under What Circumstances Must An EIS Be Prepared? ......................................................................... 79
Is The EIS Adequate? ............................................................................................................................... 86
Issues That Routinely Arise W/ Respect To Adequacy Of Content Of An EIS....................................... 87
Comprehensive Environmental, Response, Compensation, Liability Act ................................................ 90
Removal + Remediation ........................................................................................................................... 91
Applicability To Hazardous Substances ........................................................................................... 91
OPTIONS For Clean-Up ........................................................................................................................ 92
GOVERNMENT OPTIONS .................................................................................................................... 92
COST RECOVERY FOR PRIVATE PARTIES ....................................................................................... 92
Liability Provisions .................................................................................................................................. 94
Elements Of A Cost Recovery Claim ...................................................................................................... 94
1
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
Potentially Responsible Parties ................................................................................................................ 95
Extent Of Liability ................................................................................................................................... 97
Defenses To Liability ............................................................................................................................... 98
Allocation Of LIABILITY ..................................................................................................................... 100
2
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
I. Why and How to Regulate to Protect the
Environment?
Background Principles And Justifications
Samuel Hayes – Changes In Environmental Values Part Of Larger + Complex Change In Social Attitudes/Values
❖ Part Of Broader Shift Can Afford To Focus On These Issues
❖ “Pollution” As A Problem Arose More From New Attitudes That Valued Functioning Ecosystems And
Human Health
“Adverse Environmental Impact”
❖ To Certain Degree Is Matter Of Perception + Informed By Set Of Values
o Ex: Some Like Wilderness Preservation, Harm In Cutting Down Trees; Others Think Cutting
Trees Is Productive (Resources) W/ Little Environmental Harm. Disagreement, Partly B/C Diff.
Values
❖ “Adverse Environmental Impacts” And “Environmental Problems” = Concepts Constructed By Humans?
Consensus Among Environmentalists Often Falls Apart Over Question Of Remedy
❖ Remedial Questions Expose Underlying Value Disagreements
Environmental Values + Ethics
Are Actions, Like Slash-And-Burn Techniques To Clear Areas For Agriculture, Morally Permissible Or Even Required? Are
They Morally Acceptable?
Is Destroying Environment Wrong B/C Sustainable Environment Is Essential To Human Well-Being?
Or Is Such Behavior Also Wrong B/C Natural Environment And/Or Its Various Contents Have Certain Values In Own
Right, So Should Be Protected + Respected?
What Is The Justification For Creating Environmental Statutes And Regulations?
Distinction B/W Instrumental Value And Intrinsic Value
❖ Instrumental: Value Of Things As MEANS To Further Some Other Ends
o Ex: Certain Wild Plant May Have Instrumental Value B/C It Provides Ingredients For Some Medicine
For Humans
❖ Intrinsic: Value Of Things As ENDS In THEMSELVES Regardless Of Whether They’re Also Useful As
Means To Other Ends
o Ex: If Same Wild Plant Also Has Value Independently Of Its Prospects For Furthering Some Other
Ends, Like Human Health, Plant Also Has Intrinsic Value
Fundamental Divisions In POV –
❖ Human-Centered / Anthropocentric Approach
o Main Object Of Moral Or Ethical Concern Is HUMANKIND
o Assign Intrinsic Value To Humans Alone (Anthropocentric In Strong Sense); Or
o Assign Much Greater Intrinsic Value To Humans Than Any Non-Human Things - Protection
Or Promotion Of Human Interests Or Well-Being At Expense Of Non-Humans Nearly Always
Justified (Anthropocentric In Weak Sense)
o [Many View All These Human-Centered Approaches As Insufficient]
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic
❖ Hates On Economic-Based View Of Environment’s Value
3
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
o “System Of Conservation Based Solely On Economic Self-Interest Is Hopelessly Lopsided. It
Tends
To Ignore, And Eventually Eliminate, Many Elements In Land Community W/O Commercial
4
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
Contents
Background Principles And Justifications ............................................................................................... 3
Regulatory Options ................................................................................................................................. 12
Regulatory Process ................................................................................................................................... 16
Toxics Challenge And Regulating In Face Of Uncertainty..................................................................... 21
Regulatory Responses: Balancing Feasibility-Limited Regulation ...................................................... 24
Structure Of Act, Permitting, Technology-Based Limitations For “Point Sources” ............................ 28
Water Quality Standards & Tmdls............................................................................................................ 42
Wetlands Protection And § 404 Permit Program ..................................................................................... 43
CAA Basic Principles + Overview ........................................................................................................... 47
NAAQS .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Non-Attainment Program ......................................................................................................................... 57
New Source Review ................................................................................................................................. 58
Interstate Pollution ................................................................................................................................... 63
MOBILE SOURCE CONTROLS: Technology-Forcing Venture .......................................................... 67
Is It Fair To Let People Purchase The Right To Pollute? ...................................................................... 71
National Policy Act Of 1969 (NEPA) ...................................................................................................... 78
Under What Circumstances Must An EIS Be Prepared? ......................................................................... 79
Is The EIS Adequate? ............................................................................................................................... 86
Issues That Routinely Arise W/ Respect To Adequacy Of Content Of An EIS....................................... 87
Comprehensive Environmental, Response, Compensation, Liability Act ................................................ 90
Removal + Remediation ........................................................................................................................... 91
Applicability To Hazardous Substances ........................................................................................... 91
OPTIONS For Clean-Up ........................................................................................................................ 92
GOVERNMENT OPTIONS .................................................................................................................... 92
COST RECOVERY FOR PRIVATE PARTIES ....................................................................................... 92
Liability Provisions .................................................................................................................................. 94
Elements Of A Cost Recovery Claim ...................................................................................................... 94
1
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
Potentially Responsible Parties ................................................................................................................ 95
Extent Of Liability ................................................................................................................................... 97
Defenses To Liability ............................................................................................................................... 98
Allocation Of LIABILITY ..................................................................................................................... 100
2
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
I. Why and How to Regulate to Protect the
Environment?
Background Principles And Justifications
Samuel Hayes – Changes In Environmental Values Part Of Larger + Complex Change In Social Attitudes/Values
❖ Part Of Broader Shift Can Afford To Focus On These Issues
❖ “Pollution” As A Problem Arose More From New Attitudes That Valued Functioning Ecosystems And
Human Health
“Adverse Environmental Impact”
❖ To Certain Degree Is Matter Of Perception + Informed By Set Of Values
o Ex: Some Like Wilderness Preservation, Harm In Cutting Down Trees; Others Think Cutting
Trees Is Productive (Resources) W/ Little Environmental Harm. Disagreement, Partly B/C Diff.
Values
❖ “Adverse Environmental Impacts” And “Environmental Problems” = Concepts Constructed By Humans?
Consensus Among Environmentalists Often Falls Apart Over Question Of Remedy
❖ Remedial Questions Expose Underlying Value Disagreements
Environmental Values + Ethics
Are Actions, Like Slash-And-Burn Techniques To Clear Areas For Agriculture, Morally Permissible Or Even Required? Are
They Morally Acceptable?
Is Destroying Environment Wrong B/C Sustainable Environment Is Essential To Human Well-Being?
Or Is Such Behavior Also Wrong B/C Natural Environment And/Or Its Various Contents Have Certain Values In Own
Right, So Should Be Protected + Respected?
What Is The Justification For Creating Environmental Statutes And Regulations?
Distinction B/W Instrumental Value And Intrinsic Value
❖ Instrumental: Value Of Things As MEANS To Further Some Other Ends
o Ex: Certain Wild Plant May Have Instrumental Value B/C It Provides Ingredients For Some Medicine
For Humans
❖ Intrinsic: Value Of Things As ENDS In THEMSELVES Regardless Of Whether They’re Also Useful As
Means To Other Ends
o Ex: If Same Wild Plant Also Has Value Independently Of Its Prospects For Furthering Some Other
Ends, Like Human Health, Plant Also Has Intrinsic Value
Fundamental Divisions In POV –
❖ Human-Centered / Anthropocentric Approach
o Main Object Of Moral Or Ethical Concern Is HUMANKIND
o Assign Intrinsic Value To Humans Alone (Anthropocentric In Strong Sense); Or
o Assign Much Greater Intrinsic Value To Humans Than Any Non-Human Things - Protection
Or Promotion Of Human Interests Or Well-Being At Expense Of Non-Humans Nearly Always
Justified (Anthropocentric In Weak Sense)
o [Many View All These Human-Centered Approaches As Insufficient]
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic
❖ Hates On Economic-Based View Of Environment’s Value
3
, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION – EXAM OUTLINE
o “System Of Conservation Based Solely On Economic Self-Interest Is Hopelessly Lopsided. It
Tends
To Ignore, And Eventually Eliminate, Many Elements In Land Community W/O Commercial
4
