Theories
Feminism:
P1 - liberal feminists
- Liberal feminists argue that gender inequality results from discriminatory laws,
outdated social attitudes, and gendered socialisation, rather than deep structural
oppression.
- They take a reformist, march‑of‑progress view of society, believing that gradual change
through legal reform and cultural shifts can achieve equality. Eg. Equal pay act 2010,
divorce reform act 1969 They reject the idea that biology determines gender roles,
instead seeing gender as socially constructed and therefore changeable.
- e.g. Women are ‘emotional and unstable’ so excluded from decision making and in
charge of housework.
- Oakley distinguishes between sex (biological) and gender (culturally constructed),
arguing that gender norms vary across cultures and time. She criticises Parsons’
instrumental/expressive roles, claiming both men and women are capable of either role.
Oakley’s research shows men now do more housework, supporting the idea of gradual
improvement
- Therefore, liberal feminists see society as capable of reform, with inequality rooted in
outdated norms rather than entrenched patriarchal structures.
- A03 - However, critics argue this view is overly optimistic. Walby claims liberal feminism
ignores the deep‑rooted structural causes of women’s oppression and fails to explain
the overall structure of gender inequality
P2 - radical feminists
- Radical feminists argue that patriarchy is universal, deeply embedded in both public and
private spheres, and is the primary source of women’s oppression.
- They view society as fundamentally organised around male domination, where all men
benefit from women’s subordination. Oppression is direct, personal, and rooted in
power relations, especially within sexuality and intimate relationships.
- Dworkin: rejects the view that men are somehow redeemable, no faith they can adopt
an entirely new set of values ‘all men and potential rapists’
- Personal relationships need to be changed for women to be freed - separatism - new
culture of female independence
- Consciousness raising - women coming together to recognise their oppression and
collective experiences eg. reclaim the night
- Thus, radical feminists see society as structured around male power, requiring a
complete transformation of personal and sexual relationships.
- Political lesbianism - Greer
- A03: Yet critics argue patriarchy is in decline, with liberal feminists pointing to legal
reforms and changing attitudes. Sommerville claims separatism is unrealistic because
heterosexual attraction makes single‑sex households unlikely.
P3 - marxist feminists
, - Marxist feminists argue that women’s oppression is rooted in capitalism, which exploits
women’s labour both in the home and the workplace
- They see society as structured by class inequality, with patriarchy functioning to
support capitalism. Women act as a reserve army of labour, provide unpaid domestic
labour, and absorb the frustrations of exploited working‑class men.
- Ansley famously describes women as “takers of shit”, absorbing men’s anger caused by
capitalist exploitation. Bartlett highlights the ideology of familism, which presents
women’s domestic role as natural and fulfilling, masking their exploitation. Marxist
feminists argue that both capitalism and patriarchal ideology must be overthrown for
women’s liberation. Family as the only place women are fulfilled - motherhood, intimacy
and sexual satisfaction.
- Therefore, Marxist feminists see society as one where capitalist structures depend on
women’s unpaid labour and emotional work.
- A03: However, critics argue Marxist feminism is “sex‑blind”. Hartmann claims it cannot
explain why patriarchy exists in non‑capitalist societies, or why women, rather than
men, perform unpaid domestic labour
P4 - difference feminists
- Difference feminists argue that traditional feminism wrongly treats women as a single,
homogenous group, ignoring differences in ethnicity, class, sexuality, and culture.
- They see society as one where women’s experiences are diverse and shaped by
intersecting identities. Oppression is not universal; it varies depending on social
location.
- Butler, a poststructural feminist, argues that white, Western, middle‑class feminists
have falsely claimed to represent “universal womanhood”, ignoring the unique
experiences of Black, working‑class, or lesbian women. She rejects the idea that
women share a single essence.
- Thus, difference feminists view society as producing multiple, intersecting forms of
oppression, meaning feminism must recognise diversity rather than impose a single
narrative.
- However, radical and liberal feminists argue this approach draws attention away from
problems shared by all women, weakening collective struggle against patriarchy eg.
domestic violence.
Functionalist
P1 - value consensus and social order
- Functionalists argue that social order is maintained through a value consensus, where
members of society share common norms and values.
- They see society as a stable, integrated system that depends on agreement about what
is right and wrong. Shared values prevent conflict and ensure cooperation, allowing
society to function smoothly even when individuals differ.
, - Durkheim argues that societies rely on a collective conscience — a shared moral
framework that binds individuals together. Institutions such as education, religion and
the family reinforce this conscience, producing social solidarity and preventing anomie
(a state of normlessness and chaos).
- Therefore, functionalists view society as held together by a moral consensus, which
explains why social order persists despite individual differences.
- A03: However, critics argue this is a myth of meritocracy. Marxists claim value
consensus is an illusion that masks exploitation and inequality, benefiting the powerful
rather than reflecting shared agreement.
P2 - society as a system
- Functionalists argue that society operates as a system of interdependent institutions,
each performing essential functions to maintain social stability.
- They view society as similar to a biological organism, where different parts work
together to meet the needs of the whole. Social order is maintained because
institutions coordinate to ensure survival.
- Parsons uses the organic analogy, comparing society to a body with specialised
organs. He identifies four key functional prerequisites:
- Adaptation (economy)
- Goal attainment (political system)
- Integration (education, religion, media)
- Latency / pattern maintenance (family)
- For example, education performs role allocation, ensuring individuals are matched to
appropriate roles.
- Thus, functionalists see society as a self-regulating system, where institutions
contribute to overall stability and cohesion.
- A03: Feminists argue this perspective ignores inequalities embedded within institutions,
particularly the gendered division of labour in the family and workplace.
P3 - socialisation and social control
- Functionalists argue that social order is maintained through socialisation and social
control, which integrate individuals into society.
- They see society as requiring individuals to internalise shared norms so that behaviour
becomes predictable and cooperative. Social control ensures conformity when
socialisation alone is insufficient.
- Parsons argues that social order depends on a central value system transmitted
through primary and secondary socialisation. Institutions reward conformity (e.g.
educational success leading to university and employment) and punish deviance (e.g.
labelling students as lazy).
- Therefore, functionalists view society as stable because individuals learn to want what
society needs, reproducing norms across generations.
Feminism:
P1 - liberal feminists
- Liberal feminists argue that gender inequality results from discriminatory laws,
outdated social attitudes, and gendered socialisation, rather than deep structural
oppression.
- They take a reformist, march‑of‑progress view of society, believing that gradual change
through legal reform and cultural shifts can achieve equality. Eg. Equal pay act 2010,
divorce reform act 1969 They reject the idea that biology determines gender roles,
instead seeing gender as socially constructed and therefore changeable.
- e.g. Women are ‘emotional and unstable’ so excluded from decision making and in
charge of housework.
- Oakley distinguishes between sex (biological) and gender (culturally constructed),
arguing that gender norms vary across cultures and time. She criticises Parsons’
instrumental/expressive roles, claiming both men and women are capable of either role.
Oakley’s research shows men now do more housework, supporting the idea of gradual
improvement
- Therefore, liberal feminists see society as capable of reform, with inequality rooted in
outdated norms rather than entrenched patriarchal structures.
- A03 - However, critics argue this view is overly optimistic. Walby claims liberal feminism
ignores the deep‑rooted structural causes of women’s oppression and fails to explain
the overall structure of gender inequality
P2 - radical feminists
- Radical feminists argue that patriarchy is universal, deeply embedded in both public and
private spheres, and is the primary source of women’s oppression.
- They view society as fundamentally organised around male domination, where all men
benefit from women’s subordination. Oppression is direct, personal, and rooted in
power relations, especially within sexuality and intimate relationships.
- Dworkin: rejects the view that men are somehow redeemable, no faith they can adopt
an entirely new set of values ‘all men and potential rapists’
- Personal relationships need to be changed for women to be freed - separatism - new
culture of female independence
- Consciousness raising - women coming together to recognise their oppression and
collective experiences eg. reclaim the night
- Thus, radical feminists see society as structured around male power, requiring a
complete transformation of personal and sexual relationships.
- Political lesbianism - Greer
- A03: Yet critics argue patriarchy is in decline, with liberal feminists pointing to legal
reforms and changing attitudes. Sommerville claims separatism is unrealistic because
heterosexual attraction makes single‑sex households unlikely.
P3 - marxist feminists
, - Marxist feminists argue that women’s oppression is rooted in capitalism, which exploits
women’s labour both in the home and the workplace
- They see society as structured by class inequality, with patriarchy functioning to
support capitalism. Women act as a reserve army of labour, provide unpaid domestic
labour, and absorb the frustrations of exploited working‑class men.
- Ansley famously describes women as “takers of shit”, absorbing men’s anger caused by
capitalist exploitation. Bartlett highlights the ideology of familism, which presents
women’s domestic role as natural and fulfilling, masking their exploitation. Marxist
feminists argue that both capitalism and patriarchal ideology must be overthrown for
women’s liberation. Family as the only place women are fulfilled - motherhood, intimacy
and sexual satisfaction.
- Therefore, Marxist feminists see society as one where capitalist structures depend on
women’s unpaid labour and emotional work.
- A03: However, critics argue Marxist feminism is “sex‑blind”. Hartmann claims it cannot
explain why patriarchy exists in non‑capitalist societies, or why women, rather than
men, perform unpaid domestic labour
P4 - difference feminists
- Difference feminists argue that traditional feminism wrongly treats women as a single,
homogenous group, ignoring differences in ethnicity, class, sexuality, and culture.
- They see society as one where women’s experiences are diverse and shaped by
intersecting identities. Oppression is not universal; it varies depending on social
location.
- Butler, a poststructural feminist, argues that white, Western, middle‑class feminists
have falsely claimed to represent “universal womanhood”, ignoring the unique
experiences of Black, working‑class, or lesbian women. She rejects the idea that
women share a single essence.
- Thus, difference feminists view society as producing multiple, intersecting forms of
oppression, meaning feminism must recognise diversity rather than impose a single
narrative.
- However, radical and liberal feminists argue this approach draws attention away from
problems shared by all women, weakening collective struggle against patriarchy eg.
domestic violence.
Functionalist
P1 - value consensus and social order
- Functionalists argue that social order is maintained through a value consensus, where
members of society share common norms and values.
- They see society as a stable, integrated system that depends on agreement about what
is right and wrong. Shared values prevent conflict and ensure cooperation, allowing
society to function smoothly even when individuals differ.
, - Durkheim argues that societies rely on a collective conscience — a shared moral
framework that binds individuals together. Institutions such as education, religion and
the family reinforce this conscience, producing social solidarity and preventing anomie
(a state of normlessness and chaos).
- Therefore, functionalists view society as held together by a moral consensus, which
explains why social order persists despite individual differences.
- A03: However, critics argue this is a myth of meritocracy. Marxists claim value
consensus is an illusion that masks exploitation and inequality, benefiting the powerful
rather than reflecting shared agreement.
P2 - society as a system
- Functionalists argue that society operates as a system of interdependent institutions,
each performing essential functions to maintain social stability.
- They view society as similar to a biological organism, where different parts work
together to meet the needs of the whole. Social order is maintained because
institutions coordinate to ensure survival.
- Parsons uses the organic analogy, comparing society to a body with specialised
organs. He identifies four key functional prerequisites:
- Adaptation (economy)
- Goal attainment (political system)
- Integration (education, religion, media)
- Latency / pattern maintenance (family)
- For example, education performs role allocation, ensuring individuals are matched to
appropriate roles.
- Thus, functionalists see society as a self-regulating system, where institutions
contribute to overall stability and cohesion.
- A03: Feminists argue this perspective ignores inequalities embedded within institutions,
particularly the gendered division of labour in the family and workplace.
P3 - socialisation and social control
- Functionalists argue that social order is maintained through socialisation and social
control, which integrate individuals into society.
- They see society as requiring individuals to internalise shared norms so that behaviour
becomes predictable and cooperative. Social control ensures conformity when
socialisation alone is insufficient.
- Parsons argues that social order depends on a central value system transmitted
through primary and secondary socialisation. Institutions reward conformity (e.g.
educational success leading to university and employment) and punish deviance (e.g.
labelling students as lazy).
- Therefore, functionalists view society as stable because individuals learn to want what
society needs, reproducing norms across generations.
