Families
Policies
Social policy = any plans or action of state agencies such as health and social services, the welfare
benefit system and school and other bodies. Policies affect the family directly eg. divorce/ marriage,
abortion, contraception or indirectly eg. education, childcare, housing
Examples of policies
- 1969 divorce act = Made divorce much easier to obtain – no longer needed to prove blame –
just agreement that the relationship had reach irretrievable breakdown - Caused a huge rise in
divorces, creating more single parent and blended families, contributing to family diversity.
- Child Benefits Act - 1974 = This was the first universal child benefit. It gave couples £1 a week
for each child. And £1.50 for any additional. Single parents got more - Giving incentive for
having children and larger families. New Right criticised that it seemed to promote and reward
single parent families too.
- Adoption Act - 2005 = Gave the same adoption rights to same sex couples that heterosexual
couples got = Promotes family diversity and equality. Undermines the traditional Nuclear
family.
- Shared Parental Leave - 2015 = Allows couples to more flexibly share and allocate their
parental leave. = Challenges traditional gender norms- allowing women to go back to work
sooner and men to stay at home for childcare.
Family and social policy - theories
Paragraph 1 — Functionalism: Social policy benefits families
- One argument is that social policy has a positive impact on families because it strengthens
social institutions and helps them perform their functions effectively
- This supports the view that social policy benefits families because policies are seen as tools
that promote social stability, support family roles and improve the well‑being of family
members. The state is viewed as acting in the interests of society as a whole.
- Functionalists argue that policies such as the NHS, compulsory education and housing
support help families meet their needs. Fletcher claims that health, education and welfare
policies have created a supportive welfare state that enables families to care for and socialise
their members more effectively. Eg. education reform act or Compulsory Education (1944
Education Act) = role allocation, socialisation of consensus
- This suggests social policy is beneficial because it strengthens the family’s ability to perform
essential functions such as socialisation, care and economic support.
- A03: However, critics argue functionalism is overly optimistic, assuming all families benefit
equally. Feminists highlight that many policies reinforce patriarchy, while Marxists argue
policies may maintain inequality rather than reduce it.
Paragraph 2 - Conflict View (Donzelot): Social policy is a form of state control
- A contrasting view is that social policy does not benefit families but instead acts as a
mechanism of surveillance and control
- This challenges the idea that social policy supports families by arguing that policies are used
to monitor, regulate and discipline certain groups, particularly the working class, rather than to
help them.
, - Conflict theorists argue that professionals such as social workers, doctors and welfare
officers use policy to intervene in family life. Donzelot draws on the idea of surveillance,
suggesting that poor families are targeted for state intervention. Condry notes that parents of
young offenders may be compelled to attend parenting classes, demonstrating how policy
can discipline families.
- Eg. Compulsory social worker intervention or Anti‑social behaviour orders (ASBOs)
- This perspective suggests social policy is not beneficial but intrusive, reducing family
autonomy and reinforcing inequalities.
- A03: However, critics argue this view fails to identify who benefits from such control. Marxists
claim policies serve capitalism, while feminists argue they reinforce patriarchy — meaning
Donzelot’s analysis lacks clarity about the underlying power structure.
Paragraph 3 — New Right: Social policy undermines the nuclear family
- Another argument is that social policy harms families by promoting diversity, dependency and
the decline of the traditional nuclear family.
- This challenges the idea that social policy benefits families by arguing that many policies
weaken marriage, encourage lone parenthood and create welfare dependency, which
undermines effective socialisation and self‑reliance.
- New Right thinkers argue that policies such as easier divorce, welfare benefits and civil
partnerships undermine the nuclear family. Almond claims laws that make divorce easier
weaken marriage as a lifelong commitment, while Murray argues welfare benefits create
“perverse incentives” and a dependency culture that encourages single motherhood and
dependency, leading to inad
- equate socialisation and higher crime.
- Dislike 1969 divorce act, like the Child Support Agency (1993) which Forces absent fathers to
take responsibility.Tax breaks for married couples - encourages nuclear family, Restrictions on
promoting homosexuality (Section 28).
- This suggests social policy is harmful because it disrupts the nuclear family, which the New
Right sees as essential for social stability.A03: However, critics argue the New Right idealises
the nuclear family and ignores structural causes of poverty. Feminists claim it reinforces
patriarchy, and others argue cutting welfare would push vulnerable families into deeper
hardship.
Paragraph 4 — Feminism: Social policy reinforces patriarchy
- A final argument is that social policy often reinforces gender inequality by supporting
patriarchal family structures.
- This challenges the idea that social policy benefits families by arguing that many policies are
based on patriarchal assumptions about gender roles, which restrict women’s choices and
maintain male dominance.
- Feminists argue that policies such as tax systems, childcare provision and maternity leave
reinforce women’s dependency. Land claims policies assume the ideal family is the patriarchal
nuclear family, creating a self‑fulfilling prophecy. Drew distinguishes between familistic gender
regimes, which reinforce traditional roles, and individualistic regimes, which promote equality.
- Maternity leave is more generous than paternity leave, Assume women are primary
caregivers, Carer expectations for elderly relatives = Burdens women with unpaid care work.
- This suggests social policy often disadvantages women by embedding patriarchal
expectations into law and welfare systems
, - A03: However, critics argue feminism overlooks policies that have improved women’s lives,
such as equal pay legislation, shared parental leave and anti‑discrimination laws.
Family diversity
Family types: nuclear, extended, lone parent families, beanpole family, same sex parents, cohabiting
couples, stepfamilies
Paragraph 1 — Functionalism: Diversity is undesirable and the nuclear family is uniquely functional
- One contribution functionalism makes is the argument that family diversity is undesirable
because only the nuclear family can perform the essential functions required for a stable
society.
- This helps us understand family diversity by framing it as a deviation from the ideal.
Functionalists argue that the nuclear family is uniquely suited to the needs of modern society,
meaning other family forms are less effective or even dysfunctional.
- Functionalists argue that the nuclear family is the “functional fit” for modern industrial society.
Parsons claims it performs two key functions — primary socialisation and stabilisation of
adult personalities — which maintain social order. He argues that other family types (e.g.,
lone‑parent families, same‑sex families, cohabiting couples) cannot perform these functions
as effectively, making diversity less desirable.
- This contributes to our understanding by showing how some sociologists view diversity as a
threat to stability, reinforcing the idea that the nuclear family remains the most effective family
form.
- A03 However, critics argue functionalism is ethnocentric and outdated, ignoring the success
of diverse families and assuming the nuclear family is universally superior.
P2: Personal Life Perspective: Diversity is real but shaped by relationships and constraints
- Another contribution is the argument that family diversity is meaningful, but individuals’
choices are shaped by relational ties and structural inequalities.
- This helps us understand diversity by showing that people do not simply choose diverse
family forms freely. Instead, their decisions are shaped by obligations, emotional bonds and
social constraints. Diversity is therefore complex and relational, not just a matter of lifestyle
choice.
- The personal life perspective argues that individuals make choices within a “web of
connectedness.” Smart emphasises that decisions about relationships are shaped by existing
ties and responsibilities. May argues that theories of individualisation reflect privileged groups,
‘idealised version of the white m/c man’ . Finch and Mason show that family obligations often
limit choice, such as expectations around caring for relatives, we are ‘embedded within family
connections’
- Couple relations not always pure and cant always be walked away from
- this contributes to our understanding by showing that diversity must be understood in relation
to social context, not just individual preference.
- A03; However, critics argue this perspective underplays the cultural shift towards autonomy
and the growing importance of personal choice highlighted by postmodernists
P3 New Right: Diversity is harmful and destabilising
, - A contrasting contribution is the argument that family diversity is damaging because it
undermines the traditional nuclear family, which is seen as the foundation of a stable society.
- This helps us understand diversity by framing it as a source of social problems such as poor
socialisation, welfare dependency and family breakdown. Diversity is therefore viewed as
negative rather than a sign of progress.
- New Right thinkers argue that lone‑parent families and cohabiting couples are less stable and
less effective at raising children. Murray claims welfare policies create a “dependency culture”
that encourages non‑marital births and lone‑parent families. Benson’s research shows higher
breakdown rates among cohabiting couples compared to married ones, suggesting marriage
provides greater stability.
- Patriarchal nuclear with clear cut division of labour between bread winner husband and home
maker wife
- This contributes to our understanding by showing how some sociologists interpret diversity
as a threat to social order and child well‑being
- A03 critics argue that gender is not based on biology, cross cultural studies show variations in
role of men and women
p4`Postmodernism: Diversity is inevitable, positive and liberating
- A final contribution is the argument that family diversity is not only real but inevitable in a
postmodern society characterised by choice, fluidity and individualisation
- This helps us understand diversity by showing that individuals construct their own family
forms based on personal choice rather than tradition. Diversity is seen as a positive
expression of freedom and identity.
- Postmodernists argue that society has entered a stage where no single family structure
dominates. Cheal claims family life is now unpredictable and varied - we no longer live within
one single dominant family structure.
- Morgan = pointless to make large scale generalisations about family as if it were a single
thing, simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call family.
- Giddens argues that relationships are now based on choice and equality — the “pure
relationship” — which increases diversity but also instability. Not a permanent commitment,
just satisfying the needs of partners.
- This contributes to our understanding by explaining why diversity has expanded and why
family forms are increasingly fluid and personalised.
- A03 However, critics argue postmodernism exaggerates freedom and ignores how class,
gender and ethnicity still shape people’s choices, as highlighted by the personal life
perspective.
Childhood
Childhood has changed over time:
P1: March of Progress: Childhood has improved
- Childhood has significantly improved over time due to the emergence of a child‑centred
society.
- This suggests that modern childhood is characterised by protection, emotional investment
and prioritisation of children’s needs—indicating clear improvement compared to the past -
‘more valued, cared for and protected’
Policies
Social policy = any plans or action of state agencies such as health and social services, the welfare
benefit system and school and other bodies. Policies affect the family directly eg. divorce/ marriage,
abortion, contraception or indirectly eg. education, childcare, housing
Examples of policies
- 1969 divorce act = Made divorce much easier to obtain – no longer needed to prove blame –
just agreement that the relationship had reach irretrievable breakdown - Caused a huge rise in
divorces, creating more single parent and blended families, contributing to family diversity.
- Child Benefits Act - 1974 = This was the first universal child benefit. It gave couples £1 a week
for each child. And £1.50 for any additional. Single parents got more - Giving incentive for
having children and larger families. New Right criticised that it seemed to promote and reward
single parent families too.
- Adoption Act - 2005 = Gave the same adoption rights to same sex couples that heterosexual
couples got = Promotes family diversity and equality. Undermines the traditional Nuclear
family.
- Shared Parental Leave - 2015 = Allows couples to more flexibly share and allocate their
parental leave. = Challenges traditional gender norms- allowing women to go back to work
sooner and men to stay at home for childcare.
Family and social policy - theories
Paragraph 1 — Functionalism: Social policy benefits families
- One argument is that social policy has a positive impact on families because it strengthens
social institutions and helps them perform their functions effectively
- This supports the view that social policy benefits families because policies are seen as tools
that promote social stability, support family roles and improve the well‑being of family
members. The state is viewed as acting in the interests of society as a whole.
- Functionalists argue that policies such as the NHS, compulsory education and housing
support help families meet their needs. Fletcher claims that health, education and welfare
policies have created a supportive welfare state that enables families to care for and socialise
their members more effectively. Eg. education reform act or Compulsory Education (1944
Education Act) = role allocation, socialisation of consensus
- This suggests social policy is beneficial because it strengthens the family’s ability to perform
essential functions such as socialisation, care and economic support.
- A03: However, critics argue functionalism is overly optimistic, assuming all families benefit
equally. Feminists highlight that many policies reinforce patriarchy, while Marxists argue
policies may maintain inequality rather than reduce it.
Paragraph 2 - Conflict View (Donzelot): Social policy is a form of state control
- A contrasting view is that social policy does not benefit families but instead acts as a
mechanism of surveillance and control
- This challenges the idea that social policy supports families by arguing that policies are used
to monitor, regulate and discipline certain groups, particularly the working class, rather than to
help them.
, - Conflict theorists argue that professionals such as social workers, doctors and welfare
officers use policy to intervene in family life. Donzelot draws on the idea of surveillance,
suggesting that poor families are targeted for state intervention. Condry notes that parents of
young offenders may be compelled to attend parenting classes, demonstrating how policy
can discipline families.
- Eg. Compulsory social worker intervention or Anti‑social behaviour orders (ASBOs)
- This perspective suggests social policy is not beneficial but intrusive, reducing family
autonomy and reinforcing inequalities.
- A03: However, critics argue this view fails to identify who benefits from such control. Marxists
claim policies serve capitalism, while feminists argue they reinforce patriarchy — meaning
Donzelot’s analysis lacks clarity about the underlying power structure.
Paragraph 3 — New Right: Social policy undermines the nuclear family
- Another argument is that social policy harms families by promoting diversity, dependency and
the decline of the traditional nuclear family.
- This challenges the idea that social policy benefits families by arguing that many policies
weaken marriage, encourage lone parenthood and create welfare dependency, which
undermines effective socialisation and self‑reliance.
- New Right thinkers argue that policies such as easier divorce, welfare benefits and civil
partnerships undermine the nuclear family. Almond claims laws that make divorce easier
weaken marriage as a lifelong commitment, while Murray argues welfare benefits create
“perverse incentives” and a dependency culture that encourages single motherhood and
dependency, leading to inad
- equate socialisation and higher crime.
- Dislike 1969 divorce act, like the Child Support Agency (1993) which Forces absent fathers to
take responsibility.Tax breaks for married couples - encourages nuclear family, Restrictions on
promoting homosexuality (Section 28).
- This suggests social policy is harmful because it disrupts the nuclear family, which the New
Right sees as essential for social stability.A03: However, critics argue the New Right idealises
the nuclear family and ignores structural causes of poverty. Feminists claim it reinforces
patriarchy, and others argue cutting welfare would push vulnerable families into deeper
hardship.
Paragraph 4 — Feminism: Social policy reinforces patriarchy
- A final argument is that social policy often reinforces gender inequality by supporting
patriarchal family structures.
- This challenges the idea that social policy benefits families by arguing that many policies are
based on patriarchal assumptions about gender roles, which restrict women’s choices and
maintain male dominance.
- Feminists argue that policies such as tax systems, childcare provision and maternity leave
reinforce women’s dependency. Land claims policies assume the ideal family is the patriarchal
nuclear family, creating a self‑fulfilling prophecy. Drew distinguishes between familistic gender
regimes, which reinforce traditional roles, and individualistic regimes, which promote equality.
- Maternity leave is more generous than paternity leave, Assume women are primary
caregivers, Carer expectations for elderly relatives = Burdens women with unpaid care work.
- This suggests social policy often disadvantages women by embedding patriarchal
expectations into law and welfare systems
, - A03: However, critics argue feminism overlooks policies that have improved women’s lives,
such as equal pay legislation, shared parental leave and anti‑discrimination laws.
Family diversity
Family types: nuclear, extended, lone parent families, beanpole family, same sex parents, cohabiting
couples, stepfamilies
Paragraph 1 — Functionalism: Diversity is undesirable and the nuclear family is uniquely functional
- One contribution functionalism makes is the argument that family diversity is undesirable
because only the nuclear family can perform the essential functions required for a stable
society.
- This helps us understand family diversity by framing it as a deviation from the ideal.
Functionalists argue that the nuclear family is uniquely suited to the needs of modern society,
meaning other family forms are less effective or even dysfunctional.
- Functionalists argue that the nuclear family is the “functional fit” for modern industrial society.
Parsons claims it performs two key functions — primary socialisation and stabilisation of
adult personalities — which maintain social order. He argues that other family types (e.g.,
lone‑parent families, same‑sex families, cohabiting couples) cannot perform these functions
as effectively, making diversity less desirable.
- This contributes to our understanding by showing how some sociologists view diversity as a
threat to stability, reinforcing the idea that the nuclear family remains the most effective family
form.
- A03 However, critics argue functionalism is ethnocentric and outdated, ignoring the success
of diverse families and assuming the nuclear family is universally superior.
P2: Personal Life Perspective: Diversity is real but shaped by relationships and constraints
- Another contribution is the argument that family diversity is meaningful, but individuals’
choices are shaped by relational ties and structural inequalities.
- This helps us understand diversity by showing that people do not simply choose diverse
family forms freely. Instead, their decisions are shaped by obligations, emotional bonds and
social constraints. Diversity is therefore complex and relational, not just a matter of lifestyle
choice.
- The personal life perspective argues that individuals make choices within a “web of
connectedness.” Smart emphasises that decisions about relationships are shaped by existing
ties and responsibilities. May argues that theories of individualisation reflect privileged groups,
‘idealised version of the white m/c man’ . Finch and Mason show that family obligations often
limit choice, such as expectations around caring for relatives, we are ‘embedded within family
connections’
- Couple relations not always pure and cant always be walked away from
- this contributes to our understanding by showing that diversity must be understood in relation
to social context, not just individual preference.
- A03; However, critics argue this perspective underplays the cultural shift towards autonomy
and the growing importance of personal choice highlighted by postmodernists
P3 New Right: Diversity is harmful and destabilising
, - A contrasting contribution is the argument that family diversity is damaging because it
undermines the traditional nuclear family, which is seen as the foundation of a stable society.
- This helps us understand diversity by framing it as a source of social problems such as poor
socialisation, welfare dependency and family breakdown. Diversity is therefore viewed as
negative rather than a sign of progress.
- New Right thinkers argue that lone‑parent families and cohabiting couples are less stable and
less effective at raising children. Murray claims welfare policies create a “dependency culture”
that encourages non‑marital births and lone‑parent families. Benson’s research shows higher
breakdown rates among cohabiting couples compared to married ones, suggesting marriage
provides greater stability.
- Patriarchal nuclear with clear cut division of labour between bread winner husband and home
maker wife
- This contributes to our understanding by showing how some sociologists interpret diversity
as a threat to social order and child well‑being
- A03 critics argue that gender is not based on biology, cross cultural studies show variations in
role of men and women
p4`Postmodernism: Diversity is inevitable, positive and liberating
- A final contribution is the argument that family diversity is not only real but inevitable in a
postmodern society characterised by choice, fluidity and individualisation
- This helps us understand diversity by showing that individuals construct their own family
forms based on personal choice rather than tradition. Diversity is seen as a positive
expression of freedom and identity.
- Postmodernists argue that society has entered a stage where no single family structure
dominates. Cheal claims family life is now unpredictable and varied - we no longer live within
one single dominant family structure.
- Morgan = pointless to make large scale generalisations about family as if it were a single
thing, simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call family.
- Giddens argues that relationships are now based on choice and equality — the “pure
relationship” — which increases diversity but also instability. Not a permanent commitment,
just satisfying the needs of partners.
- This contributes to our understanding by explaining why diversity has expanded and why
family forms are increasingly fluid and personalised.
- A03 However, critics argue postmodernism exaggerates freedom and ignores how class,
gender and ethnicity still shape people’s choices, as highlighted by the personal life
perspective.
Childhood
Childhood has changed over time:
P1: March of Progress: Childhood has improved
- Childhood has significantly improved over time due to the emergence of a child‑centred
society.
- This suggests that modern childhood is characterised by protection, emotional investment
and prioritisation of children’s needs—indicating clear improvement compared to the past -
‘more valued, cared for and protected’
