SPCE 630 Final Exam prep, SPCE 630 Questions With 100% Verified Correct Answers

visual analysis of graphed data - correct answers is the cornerstone of and most frequently used data analysis method in SCD research, particularly for determining whether a study demonstrates experimental control. involves systematic procedures used to evaluate specific characteristics of data patterns and evaluate the presence of a functional relation. advantages of visual analysis - correct answers -can be used to evaluate data of individuals or small groups depending on the unit of analysis specified in the research question. -data are collected repeatedly, graphed as they are collected, and analyzed frequently -focuses on analysis of individual data patterns -discovery of potentially interesting findings that may not be directly related to the original research question or program objective. -graphic presentation of data permits independent analysis and interpretation of results formative visual analysis - correct answers conducted within and across conditions to identify behavior change during the course of a study. behavior change - correct answers occurs when data patterns in one condition are different from data patterns in the subsequent, adjacent condition for the same variable(s). summative visual analysis - correct answers conducted following study completion, across multiple opportunities to demonstrate behavior change to determine whether a functional relation exists between the independent variable and the dependent variable. adjacent conditions - correct answers in SCD research, data patterns are examined within and across adjacent conditions; when data in one condition differ from what is predicted based on the preceding condition, behavior change is demonstrated. formative analysis is conducted in two steps - correct answers 1. within and across adjacent condition analyses 2. systematic examination of specific data characteristics within condition visual analyses - correct answers are conducted to discern patterns within a single condition during a study. within condition visual analyses of level, trend, and variability/stability are critical for determining when to change conditions, deciding whether adaptations need to be made, and providing information related to answering research questions. beginning with the initial condition, typically baseline, you should look for stability of data across a minimum of at least three to five sessions prior to changing conditions. condition change criteria - correct answers should be made a priori based on hypothesized data patterns. these criteria will guide both formative and summative decisions about experimental control. level - correct answers refers to the amount of behavior that occurs, as indicated by the ordinate scale value. the characteristic of highest interest for behavior change, and is generally described as low, moderate, or high. trend - correct answers the slope and direction of a data series or the direction data are moving over time. three characteristics can be described: trend directions, trend magnitude, and trend stability. trend direction - correct answers referred to as accelerating, decelerating, or zero celebrating. trend can further be characterized by magnitude, and is often described as steep or gradual and paired with direction. also describe whether the direction of a trend is improving (therapeutic) or deteriorating (contra-therapeutic). contra therapeutic trend - correct answers represents a common data pattern in SCD data that might occur within a condition and particularly prior to the introduction of the independent variable. this refers to trends that are in the opposite direction of the hypothesized direction of improvement and can establish need for the intervention. variability - correct answers fluctuation from one data point to the next and is the opposite of stability; in data with no trend, this can be summarized as the range of data values within a condition or as the percentage of data points falling within a given stability envelope stability - correct answers is predictability and consistency of data values within a condition. perceptions of this can be influenced by scales and ranges of y axes. between condition visual analysis - correct answers the objective of this is to identify if behavior change has occurred. in SCD research a particular condition (B) is introduced and re-introduced to one (eg. A-B-A-B) or more than one (multiple baseline design) data series to evaluate whether there is a functional relation between independent and dependent variables. functional relations - correct answers are unequivocal demonstrations that an independent variable produced reliable and consistent change in a dependent variable. the purpose of SCD research is to determine if behavior change occurs when the intervention is introduced, and whether the behavior change can vive reliably replicated. analysis of data across adjacent conditions entails determining: - correct answers a) changes in data patterns (level, trend, variability) b) immediacy of change c) amount of overlapping data across adjacent conditions d) consistency of data patterns across similar conditions immediacy of change - correct answers across adjacent conditions is the degree to which behavior change occurs as soon as the intervention is introduced. when a large change in level occurs immediately after introduction of a new condition, it is referred to as an abrupt change in level, which is indicative of an immediately powerful or immediately effective intervention. overlap - correct answers refers to values of data in one condition that are in the same range of values of data in the subsequent, adjacent condition. consistency - correct answers refers to the extent to which data patterns in one condition are similar to data patterns in other conditions. confident determination that a functional relation exists requires consistency in data patterns between iterations of the same condition and inconsistency in data patterns between different, adjacent conditions. potential demonstrations of effect - correct answers a functional relation can be identified when a) there is a sufficient number of this (three opportunities to demonstrate behavior change contingent on condition change) and b) visual analysis suggests that consistent changes in data occur for all potential demonstrations the presence of a functional relation can be confirmed when - correct answers a) there is a successful attempt to replicate effects of a condition b) similar conditions generate similar levels and trends within (intra participant replication) and across (inter participant replication) participants in a study. a minimum of three demonstrations of behavior change is required to establish experimental control magnitude - correct answers if a functional relation is present, this, or amount of behavior change may be of interest. magnitude of effect is assessed by comparing the amount and consistency of change across conditions and cases within a study that is directly attributed to the intervention. systematic process for conducting visual analysis - correct answers 1. adequate number of data points within conditions to establish data patterns. 2. clear patterns within conditions in level, trend, or stability 3. behavior change between adjacent conditions in level, trend, and/or variability 4. degree of overlap and immediacy of change in data patterns across adjacent conditions 5. consistency of changes across conditions and cases 6. predicted patterns of change 7. magnitude of change across conditions and cases visual analysis requires a plan - correct answers a) deciding how often data will be graphed b) considering how data will be graphically displayed c) determining which data characteristics will be the focus of within and between condition analyses d) identifying design related criteria that will impact visual analysis determining a schedule for graphing data, you should - correct answers a) ensure data are graphed regularly enough to inform decision making with respect to implementing the design as planned and b) identify relevant threats to internal validity that can be detected visually identifying design related criteria - correct answers a) minimum number of sessions per condition and b) explicit criteria for changing conditions summative analysis should focus on - correct answers a) within condition data patterns were stable b) hypothesized between condition shifts in data patterns were detected and c) these shifts consistently co occurred with each change in condition split middle method - correct answers a tool that can be used to estimate trend within conditions and compare trends between conditions. these are most useful when within condition trends or between condition changes in trend are of primary interest and data show moderate or high variability within conditions. stability envelopes - correct answers can be used to estimate stability in level or trend within conditions. the primary advantage of this is to ensure consistency in experimental decisions related to data stability. percentage of non overlapping data - correct answers may be used to estimate level change between two adjacent conditions. the higher the PND, the more consistent and abrupt the level change between adjacent conditions. a PND of 100% indicates no overlap in the ranges of values between two adjacent conditions. baseline logic - correct answers serves as the foundation for all single case design research. all SCDS are mere extensions of the basic A-B paradigms, wherein behavior is measured repeatedly across two adjacent conditions: baseline (A) and intervention (B). single case experimental designs - correct answers some authors refer to designs with at least three demonstrations of effect as this. non experimental variations A-B designs - correct answers referred to s the simple time series design, represents the most basic non experimental SCD. this design requires that the dependent variable be measured repeatedly under controlled baseline (A) and intervention (B) conditions. A-B-A designs - correct answers the target behavior is repeatedly measured under baseline (A1) and intervention (B) conditions. after the dependent variable has stabilized during intervention, you reintroduce the baseline condition (A2) to the target behavior. this design is susceptible to numerous threats of internal and external validity. A-B-A-B Withdrawal design - correct answers also referred to as reversal design, has been one of the most frequently used SCDs in behavioral research. this design permits a clear and convincing demonstration of experimental control because it requires the repeated introduction and withdrawal of an intervention. experimental - correct answers causal attributions can be made and functional relations can be demonstrated. internal validity in ABAB - correct answers maturation threats may be likely if the baseline or intervention conditions occur for an extended period of time. control for this by using condition lengths that are sufficient length to establish data patterns, intervening on behaviors that are unlikely to slowly improve over time in the absence of intervention and removing the intervention in the second baseline condition. internval validity in ABAB - correct answers due to the nature of withdrawal in ABAB, procedural infidelity and carryover effects may be likely. ABAB designs are sensitive to attrition threats in the second baseline condition when behaviors are expected to deteriorate again. corollary behaviors - correct answers the concurrent monitoring of non target behaviors has practical implications for practitioners. advantages of ABAB design - correct answers provides a convincing demonstration of causality in applied research. it controls for many of the deficiencies associated with the ABA design by a) ending in an intervention condition b) providing two opportunities to replicate the positive effects of intervention. limitations of ABAB design - correct answers relate to practical and ethical concerns. a brief withdrawal of an intervention may be deemed unethical. not appropriate for evaluating interventions with behaviors that are not likely to be reversed. multi treatment designs - correct answers variations of ABAB designs are termed this and can be also planned for use a priori to compare interventions. BAB designs - correct answers a research design you may use when a student or client exhibits self injurious, physically aggressive, or highly undesirable behaviors. for ethical purposes, you may not have opportunity to collect baseline data. the absence of pre intervention behavior measures precludes assessment of baseline data patterns of the behavior prior to the introduction of the intervention (B1). to ensure a sufficient number of replications, you can modify a BAB design by adding two additional conditions BABAB. reversal designs - correct answers involve reversing intervention contingencies during A2, rather than simply withdrawing the intervention. distinction between reversal and withdrawal designs - correct answers is when the reversal design is used, the researchers a) withdraw or remove the intervention from one behavior and b) simultaneously apply it to an incompatible behavior. the withdrawal design involves removing the intervention during the third condition of the design. time lagged designs - correct answers a class of designs well suited for evaluating and demonstrating accountability in clinical and educational settings. there are two widely used variations of time lagged designs: multiple baseline (MB) and multiple probe (MP) designs. MP and MB - correct answers both involve assessing multiple AB comparisons by implementing A to B condition changes at three or more different points in time for three or more targets rather than introducing and withdrawing the intervention with a single target continuous measurement - correct answers refers to the planned implementation and data collection during each opportunity or session. differences between MP and MB - correct answers the frequency with which pre intervention data are collected. MB requires continuous measurement of all targets prior to the introduction of the independent variable. MP design is to collect data intermittently prior to the introduction of the intervention three principal variations of MB and MP designs - correct answers 1. across several behaviors or behavior sets of a single individual 2. across several contexts 3. across several participants history threats are controlled for in MP and MB designs when - correct answers a) within condition data are stable and b) consistent between condition differences are demonstrated functionally independent - correct answers when behaviors are this, the introduction of the independent variable to one tier (behavior, context, or participant) will not bring about a change in other untreated tiers of the design. functionally similar - correct answers the behaviors ,contexts, and participants should also be this. when behaviors are this, the independent variable is likely to have the same effect on each tier. behavioral covariation - correct answers when behaviors are not functionally independent, this may occur, in tiers not yet exposed to the independent variable, resulting in an ambiguous demonstration of effect when testing threats are more likely, choose - correct answers MP design when data instability is more likely, choose - correct answers MB design if neither threat is likely, choose - correct answers an MB design because of continuous measurement, MP designs - correct answers do not require continuous measurement of all behaviors ,conditions, or participants prior to the introduction of the independent variable, as is the case with MB designs. probe trials may occur once daily or several probe trials may be clustered over a short period of time, referred to as a probe session. probe condition - correct answers differs from a baseline condition only in that probe conditions do not occur for the entire duration of pre intervention for each tier. two primary variations of the MP design - correct answers 1) one in which data are collected periodically for single sessions, and over a minimum of three days immediately prior to introduction of the independent variable, which we refer to as days variation 2) one in which data are collected for 3 or more consecutive sessions, which we refer to as the conditions variation. differences between MB and MP - correct answers in MP design, a series of consecutive probe sessions are introduced at scheduled times over the course of the study. advantages of MB and MP designs - correct answers both designs permit an evaluation and demonstration of intra participant direct replication. the MP design across behaviors provides a practical means for evaluating programs designed to teach academic and functional skills that are nonreversible once acquired. the conditions variation of the MP design across behaviors provides a paradigm for repeatedly monitoring progress over time. limitations of MP and MB - correct answers these designs require specific guidelines that may present problems. for each participant, a minimum of three behaviors must be identified. all behaviors must be monitored repeatedly and concurrently, which may be time consuming. prolonged baseline conditions can result in testing threats to internal validity. may result in a facilitative or inhibitive effect. several strategies to implement to overcome limitations associated with MP and MB designs - correct answers a) positively reinforce desired behaviors during pre intervention sessions. you can contingently reinforce target behaviors when performed correctly. using MB and MP designs across contexts - correct answers you sequentially introduce the independent variable to the same behavior across several different stimulus conditions. these can encompass the dimensions of time, instructional arrangement, activity, setting, control agent when conducting comparative studies. some issues to consider are - correct answers a) whether behaviors being studied are reversible b) time available for conducting the study c) number of accessible participants d) likely threats comparison of competing interventions - correct answers when faced with the same problem or issues, different investigators study different interventions. one may focus on intervention B and study it several times through systematic replications, and another may do the same with intervention C. the question is, which of those effective interventions will result in more efficient learning or more rapid deceleration of the challenging behaviors? comparison of an innovation to an established intervention - correct answers goal to determine whether the innovation or established intervention results in better outcomes. two requirements are important. a) the established intervention must be used as its developers recommend and be applied to behaviors, participants, and contexts similar to those in original research. b) the innovation should be sufficiently well studied so an effective and refined form of it can be used. comparisons to refine interventions - correct answers evaluate variations of the same intervention to develop and refine it. the variations may include parametric questions, such as whether using more or less of a procedure results in differential behavior changes. other variations may focus on component analyses. some can focus on procedural fidelity. the goal of these studies is to compare a form of the intervention that was effective in previous studies to a variation of that form. comparisons to understand interactions - correct answers research focuses on whether two or more interventions are more or less effective given a couple contextual variables. contextual variables can be categorized on at least four dimensions a) physical space and materials b) social structure c) temporal structure, d) instructional characteristics. the goal of such studies is to discern whether one intervention produces differential patterns of responding under varying conditions. comparison of popular and research based interventions - correct answers when a widely used intervention with little or no research support is suggested for use it is prudent to compare the effects of the untested interventions with an intervention supported by research. assess the effectiveness of two different interventions, one research based and one widely used exist in the recent literature. these studies use a sequential demonstration approach or a comparison design. multi treatment interference - correct answers the influence one experimental condition has on performance under another experimental condition. these effects can occur in demonstration designs, but they are more likely when the experimental conditions are both therapeutic in nature. carryover effects (multi treatment interference) - correct answers the influence of one experimental condition on performance under another condition due to the nature of the initial condition sequence effects (multi treatment interference) - correct answers the influence of one condition on another due to the ordering of experimental conditions. rapid alternation effects (multi treatment interference) - correct answers the effects on performance due to rapidly changing conditions non reversibility of effects - correct answers when comparing two interventions, one threat to internal validity is this. it refers to the likelihood that once behavior change occurs, it will maintain even when the condition resulting in the behavior change is removed. separation of treatments issue - correct answers most comparative studies are conducted to evaluate the superiority of one intervention over others. this occurs when using some comparison designs: when two or more interventions are applied to the same behavior, the ultimate levels of the behavior cannot be attributed to only one intervention. multi treatment designs - correct answers variations of the ABAB design developed to compare treatments are called this. the simplest multi treatment design includes BCBC sequence. these designs require only one dependent variable, but more are recommended. these designs can be used with or without a baseline condition. useful for answering many research questions, including comparisons of two different interventions, analyses of components of treatment packages, and parametric analyses. alternating treatment designs - correct answers and the multi element design are procedurally similar. this is used to compare interventions while the multi element design is used to assess factors that may be maintaining challenging behaviors. ATD uses rapid and repeated manipulation of at least two conditions. It might look like ABBAABBABAABAB ATD requires measurement of one reversible behavior. the purpose of the ATD variation is to compare two or more interventions. adapted alternating treatments design - correct answers developed to compare instructional practices with non reversible behaviors. the AATD is useful when comparing interventions for teaching functional, developmental, or academic behaviors. when this is used, independent variables are each applied to different behavior sets or behavior chains. selecting behaviors of equal difficulty - correct answers a convincing method is an experimental evaluation of the difficulty of behavior sets/chains. this is done by teaching behaviors to non participant individuals who are similar to participants who will be recruited for the actual study using the same intervention. another method is to evaluate participants' performance on related behaviors. AATD - correct answers has three sequentially implemented conditions. the first is an initial probe (baseline) condition in which all behavior sets/chains are assessed in multiple sessions. at least three baseline sessions are needed. initial probe condition sessions should be as long. the second experimental condition is a comparison condition in which the instructional strategies are applied to their respective assigned behavior sets/chains in alternating sessions. the final study condition is a probe condition in which all behavior sets/chains are assessed, including the control set/chain. AATDS are appropriate for evaluating intervention comparisons for non reversible behaviors. parallel treatment designs - correct answers devised to compare instructional practices with non reversible behaviors. it can be conceptualized as two concurrently operating multiple probe designs- one instructional strategy is evaluated with one multiple probe design, and the second is evaluated with another multiple probe design useful when comparing interventions for teaching functional, developmental, and academic behaviors. you should identify three or more behavior sets/chains for each instructional strategy being compared. changing criterion design - correct answers this may be appropriate for practitioners and applied researchers who wish to evaluate instructional or therapy programs that require gradual, stepwise changes in behavior. this design can be used to increase or decrease behaviors already in a participants' repertoire. simultaneous treatments design - correct answers have purpose of describing choice behavior when two concurrently available conditions exist. researchers can use this design when two or more options are simultaneously available and when a participants' choice between the options is of interest. these designs should be used when choice behavior is the dependent variable of interest. repeated acquisition designs - correct answers one of the few SCDs appropriate for comparing interventions for teaching non reversible behaviors. used when the behaviors of interest will be quickly acquired by the participant, and when two interventions are being compared. when using this design, many behaviors should be identified. brief experimental design - correct answers a group of SCDs that are variations of commonly used designs, specifically withdrawal and alternating treatments design. the BE design requires fewer sessions. BE design may be preferable to the more usual Multi element designs when evaluating the results of a functional analysis by decreasing the probability of problem behavior associated with an extended multi element design combination designs - correct answers common practice by researchers interested in the functional analysis of challenging behavior has been to combine an alternating treatments design with an ABA design. the decision to combine two SCDs should be made after recognition of the experimental analysis limitations of using one design alone and the advantages of combining two designs. synthesizing - correct answers reviewing results of similar studies and drawing broad conclusions about the state of the evidence. one way to synthesize outcomes is via meta analysis, which is a technique for encoding and analyzing the statistics that summarize research findings as they are typically presented in research reports. purpose of summative evaluation of outcomes - correct answers been conducted with the purpose of combining outcomes across multiple studies. the best summative evaluation of outcomes in a single study is a thorough and systematic explanation of a thorough and systematic visual analysis procedure. narrative reviews - correct answers reviews based on common or uncommon elements of works without concern for research methods, designs, or settings; traditional literature review. literature search - correct answers after identifying research questions, it is essential to conduct an exhaustive search of the literature to identify all relevant studies and to accurately document these procedures. gray literature- including conference abstracts, dissertations, and theses in your search procedures. coding - correct answers evaluate each study. three levels of evaluation for reviews including SCD studies 1) study characteristics 2) study rigor 3) study outcomes. all three levels should be coded according to specified rules, and a secondary coder should code a proportion to ensure reliability. synthesizing across studies using structured visual analysis guidelines - correct answers after coding descriptive information and analyzing internal validity, you should determine for which studies it is reasonable to synthesize outcomes. this ensures you are only assessing outcomes for studies that are sufficiently rigorous for making causal conclusions. extracting data - correct answers this is a multi step process for determining and recording the X and Y values of data points. should create single images of each graph to be included in the synthesis. meta analysis of research outcomes - correct answers the qualitative integration of a large body of results from primary research articles can contribute to practice, research, and theory. this is a statistical analysis technique, used often for group comparison design data. it results in the combination of outcomes from several studies addressing the same underlying research question in an objective way. meta analysis of SCDs - correct answers the field of meta analyses of SCDs is much less well developed compared to group comparison designs. there is no agreed upon methods or standards for effect size estimation. autocorrelation - correct answers refers to the lack of independence in SCD data, such that data points that are closer together in time are more similar than those that are farther apart in time. heteroscedastic - correct answers populations are those that have different variances overlap based metrics - correct answers one type of quantitative index suggested for use to synthesize effects across SCDs. designed for use in conjunction with visual analysis to describe the magnitude of intervention effectiveness. overlap metrics - correct answers measure the degree of non overlap between adjacent conditions via pairwise comparisons or evaluations of overlap in the highest or lowest levels of a condition. combining overlap based and descriptive indices - correct answers simple averages across studies can be calculated from overlap indices reported in the initial primary study. you can combine descriptive indices quantifying changes in level and slope. mean based metrics - correct answers an alternative approach to synthesizing SCD outcomes that provide traditional standardized effect size measurements of the magnitude of behavior change. log response ratio - correct answers a mean based effect size index that quantifies the magnitude of behavior change between two adjacent conditions. this is calculated using a natural logarithm transformation to quantify effects as a proportion of change between conditions. this is most appropriate for use with dependent variable outcomes using a ratio scale where a score of zero indicates the absence of an outcome. standardized mean differences - correct answers calculating SMD indices is another option for characterizing behavior change in SCD. regression based approaches - correct answers meta analytic approaches based on this, namely the PHS d statistic and hierarchical linear modeling are promising methods for combining SCD research steady state strategy - correct answers -forms the basis of baseline logic -repeated exposure -eliminate or control extraneous influences on behavior -stable pattern of responding baseline data - correct answers -usually represented using the letter A -absence of a specific independent variable -serves as a control condition -helps to detect change baseline logic - correct answers prediction affirmation verification replication prediction - correct answers -anticipated outcome -consistency of data patterns -3-5 measurements needed affirmation - correct answers affirmation of the consequent if A then B scenario verification - correct answers termination or withdrawal of the independent variable ---- verification of predicted baseline level replication - correct answers repeat the experiment by re introducing the independent variable to see if there is a functional relationship visual analysis within conditions - correct answers number of data points in each phase -level, trend, variability visual analysis between conditions - correct answers compare data only in adjacent conditions -level, trend, variability, overlap, immediacy of effect, consistency across similar phases visual analysis - correct answers interpreting experimental control always involves assessment of data from the whole study, not just assessment of two adjacent phases. -assessment of a basic effect is done with adjacent phases. -assessment of experimental control requires evaluation of all data in all phases four steps in visual analysis - correct answers -do baseline data document a predictable pattern? do data within each phase allow documentation of a predictable pattern? do data between phases document basic effects? do data across phases document experimental control? six variables for consideration in visual analysis - correct answers level, trend, variability, immediacy of effect, overlap, consistency across similar phases, STABILITY IN NON INTERVENED SERIES WHEN EFFECT DEMONSTRATED IN ONE SERIES alternating treatment design/ multi element - correct answers magnitude of separation- greater the difference between two conditions, larger the demonstration of a functional relation consistency of separation- greater consistency of separation between two conditions, larger the demonstration of a functional relation number of data points used to establish separation- the more points documenting separation the larger the demonstration of functional relation ABC notation - correct answers A- baseline B- intervention 1 c- intervention 2 BC- both interventions AB design - correct answers simple phase change design most basic SCRD measure dependent variable under baseline conditions and interventions strengths of AB - correct answers provides a framework for repeated measurement quickly assess the effects of an intervention don't withdraw intervention common in clinical practice limitations of AB - correct answers does not have adequate controls for internal validity (history and maturation does not have adequate controls for external validity cannot determine functional relationships conclusions are limited variations and alternatives of AB - correct answers variation- B/A design alternatives- A/B/A B/A/B A/B/A/B withdrawal designs - correct answers repeated introduction and withdrawal of intervention evaluates a direct replication of effect between A2/B2 and A1/B1 most powerful within subject design demonstrate experimental control when there are improvements in the intervention conditions that worsen when the intervention is not in place strengths of withdrawal design - correct answers simple and straightforward multiple replications external validity is strengthened when there are more participants allows for clear demonstration of functional relation end with the implementation of intervention can be extended to a multi treatment design limitations of withdrawal design - correct answers negative side effects irreversibility ethical concerns variations of withdrawal design - correct answers repeated withdrawals BAB design multiple treatment reversal designs reversal design complex phase change designs - correct answers combining simple phase changes to compare two treatments interaction element changing criterion element parametric design element combining simple phase changes - correct answers direct treatment comparison in a simple phase change we can compare two treatments, but only if we know that one intervention is already effective ) ABABCBCB we can combine simple phase changes in another way: ABA + ABA = ABACA order effects are a potential problem combining design elements - correct answers SCRD is versatile can combine design elements to answer research questions interaction element - correct answers assess the contributions of one or more treatment elements ABB+CB BB+CB ACB+CC often combined with other elements less is more changing criterion - correct answers use when there is a specified level that the behavior must reach commonly used with goals, contingencies, posted expectations considerations: number of criterion shifts, length of the subphrase in which the criterion is in force, shift criteria at regular intervals, alter the magnitude of the criterion shifts, change the direction of the shifts parametric design element - correct answers similar to a changing criterion systematically increase or decrease the parameter of interest use when there is an a priori reason to suspect that the conditions are closely related and differ on a specified parameter What are the 3 indicators of "trustworthy" measurement? - correct answers Validity, accuracy, and reliability. Describe validity in terms of one of the 3 indicators of "trustworthy" measurement. What does it measure? - correct answers Requires 3 equally important elements: (a) measuring directly a socially significant target behavior, (b) measuring a dimension of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior and (c) ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior's occurrence under conditions and during times that are most relevant to the question or concern about the behavior. Describe accuracy in terms of one of the 3 indicators of "trustworthy" measurement. What does it measure? - correct answers Refers to the extent to which the observed value matches the true state or true value of the event as it exists in nature. It must be determined if there is a measurement bias. Describe reliability in terms of one of the 3 indicators of "trustworthy" measurement. What does it measure? - correct answers When measuring a procedure yields the same outcome each time. It measures consistency of data collection. How do we ensure our data are valid, accurate, and reliable? - correct answers Researchers and practitioners who asses the accuracy of their data can (a) determine early in an analysis whether the data re usable for making experimental or treatment decisions, (b) discover and correct measurement errors, (c) detect consistent patterns of measurement error that can lead to the overall improvement or calibration of the measurement system, and (d) communicate to others the relative trustworthiness of the data. What are some procedures that provide direct and indirect measurement? - correct answers Direct observation is an example of direct measurement and questionnaires filled out by parents is an example of indirect measurement. Describe the difference between continuous recording and sampling recording. Give examples of each, and advantages and disadvantages. How do we do each type of recording? 106-107 - correct answers Continuous recording is considered the gold standard in applied behavior analysis as it continuously records behaviors in a session. sampling recording differs as data is recorded in samples or increments that have been predetermined. Sample recording may be utilized when an observer is collecting data for multiple students at one time. Name the three threats to measurement accuracy and reliability. - correct answers Human error is the biggest threat to measurement accuracy and reliability. Factors that contribute to human measurement error include poorly designed measurement systems, inadequate observer training and expectations about what the data should look like. poorly designed measurement systems - correct answers An example would be an unnecessarily cumbersome and difficult to use measurement system which can create a needless loss of accuracy and reliability. inadequate observer training - correct answers observers who are not trained enough. Explicit and systematic training of observers i essential for the collection of trustworthy data. unintended influences on observers - correct answers Presuppositions an observer may hold about the expected outcomes of the data and an observer's awareness that others are measuring the same behavior. How do we maximize the quality of observers who are taking our data? 108-109 - correct answers Provide a systematic approach that covers methods such as sample vignettes, narrative descriptions, video sequences, role playing and practice sessions int eh environment Describe how we assess the accuracy and reliability of data, including the differences between obtained and true values of data. Describe how, if you can, look at data and know whether those data are obtained or true or both? 110-11 - correct answers calculate the correspondence of each measure, or datum, asses to its true value. True values for many behaviors of interest to ABA are evident and universally accepted or can be established conditionally by local context. True values for some behaviors are difficult because the process for determining a true value must be different from the measurement procedures used to obtain the data one wishes to compare to the true value. Why is the interobserver agreement very important to measurement? - correct answers To determine the competence of new observers, detect observer drift, judge whether the definition of the target behavior is clear and the system not too difficult to use, and convince others of the relative believability of the data. List the requisites for obtaining valid IOA measures - correct answers It requires that two or more observers use the same observation code and measurement system, observe and measure the same participants and events, and observer and record the behavior independent of influence by other observers. If given some data, be able to calculate IOA using the preferred method of doing so, based upon the type of measurement system used to collect those data. If given a description of a target behavior and context, be able to select the best observational recording system to use to measure that behavior. 114-119 - correct answers ... Summarize the considerations in selecting, obtaining, and reporting IOA information, including how often IOA should be collected and acceptable levels of IOA - correct answers IOA assessments should occur during each condition and phase of a study and be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings and observers. 80% is the standard acceptable level of IOA. accuracy - correct answers (of measurement) The extent to which observed values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature. believability - correct answers The extent to which the researcher convinces herself and others that the data are trustworthy and deserve interpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement are the most often used index of this in applied behavior analysis. calibration - correct answers Any procedure used to evaluate the accuracy of a measurement system and, when sources of error are found, to use that information to correct or improve the measurement system. continuous measurement - correct answers measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class(es) of interest are detected during the observation period. Frequency recording, duration recording direct measurement - correct answers Directly measure the behavior of interest rather than measuring indicators of the behavior. (Frequency data on nail-biting occurrences rather than checking nails periodically). discontinuous measurement - correct answers Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class(es) of interest may not be detected. Whole interval, partial interval, momentary time sampling exact count-per-interval IOA - correct answers The percentage of total intervals in which observers recorded the same count; the most stringent description of IOA for most data sets obtained by event recording. indirect measurement - correct answers Occurs when the behavior that is measured is in some way different from the behavior of interest; considered less valid than direct measurement because inferences about the relation between the data obtained and the actual behavior of interest are required. (Checking nails periodically to see if nail-biting has occurred rather than recording instances of nail-biting observed) interobserver agreement (IOA) - correct answers The degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events. interval-by-interval IOA - correct answers comparing the two observers' recordings of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior in each observation interval and dividing the number of intervals of agreement by the total number of intervals and multiplying by 100. Y/N Y/Y N/N 66% IOA mean count-per-interval IOA - correct answers The average percentage of agreement between the counts reported by two observers in a measurement period comprised of a series of smaller counting times; a more conservative measure of IOA than total count IOA. mean duration-per-occurrence IOA - correct answers An IOA index for duration per occurrence data; also a more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOA for total duration data calculated for a given session or measurement period by computing the average percentage of agreement of the durations reported by two observers for each occurrence of the target behavior. measurement bias - correct answers Nonrandom measurement error; a form of inaccurate measurement in which the data consistently overestimate or underestimate the true value of an event. naive observer - correct answers An observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/r the experimental conditions in effect during a given phase or observation period. Data obtained by a naive observer are less likely to be influenced by observers' expectations. observed value - correct answers A measure produced by an observation and measurement system. Observed values serve st the data that the researcher and others will interpret to form conclusions about an investigation. observer drift - correct answers Any unintended change in the way an observer uses a measurement system over the course of an investigation that results in measurement error; often entails a shift in the observer's interpretation of the original definitions of the target behavior subsequent to being trained. observer reactivity - correct answers Influence on the data reported by an observer that results from the observer's awareness that others are evaluating the data he reports