Arguments for the existence of God
Paley's Design Argument
Analogy • analogy is an inference where information or meaning is transferred from one subject to
another. In the design argument, Paley is transferring his inference about the organisation
and design of watches to the organisation and design of nature. In simple terms his
analogical argument is a comparison between two systems.
Anthropic principle • Related to humans, there is a direct link between our observation of the universe and the
‘boundary conditions’ which brought it into existence. In other words, the boundary
conditions (also known as ‘cosmological constants’) had to be ‘fine tuned’ by god,
otherwise intelligent life could never have developed: it is no accident that we are here.
anthropomorphism • the habit of attributing human form or ideas to beings other than humans, particularly to
gods and animals. The adjective is anthropomorphic.
A priori • arguments which rely on logical deduction, and not on sense experience. An a priori
argument is prior to/before sense experience.
A posteriori • arguments which depend on sense experience. For example, ‘oak trees grow from
acorns’ can only be known by sense experience, and not by logic.
Inductive • arguments which use reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for
(not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. Inductive arguments are probabilistic.
They can be used to argue from what we see in the world back to the supposed cause.
Natural theology • the view that questions about gods existence, nature and attributes can be answered
without referring to scripture or to any other form of special revelation, by using reason,
science, history and observation.
Premise • a proposition that supports, or helps to support, a conclusion.
Teleological • Telos in Greek means ‘end’ or ‘purpose’, so the teleological argument for the existence of
god seeks to show that we can perceive evidence of deliberate design in the natural world.
, Arguments for the existence of God
Cosmological argument
• key thinkers- Aristotle, Aquinas, Leibniz, Copplestone, Hume, Russel
• everything that exists must have a cause. The universe exists- therefore it must have a cause, and that is God.
Aquinas’ three ways:
• motion: everything in motion is moved by something else- first mover (God).
• causation: every effect has a cause- first cause (God).
• contingency: everything contingent depends on something else- necessary being (God).
Leibniz:
• principle of sufficient reason- there must be an explanation for everything, including why there is something rather
than nothing.
Criticisms:
• Hume: no experience of universe making- cant infer god; causation may be mental habit.
• Russel: “universe is just a brute fact”
• Scientific challenges: big bang may explain beginning without divine cause
Evaluation:
• strength: supports idea of god as necessary being (consistent with classical theism)
• weakness: fallacy of composition (just because things have causes doesn't mean the universe as a whole does)
Telelological argument
• key thinkers- Peley, Tennant, Hume, Dawkins
• order and purpose in the universe suggest an intelligent designer.
• paley’s watch analogy: a watches complexity implies a designer; same for the universe- God.
• Tennant's anthropic principle: universes fine-tuning allows for intelligent life- suggest divine design.
• aesthetic principle: humans appreciate beauty beyond survival need- evidence of design by god.
Criticisms:
• Hume: weak analogy- world is not like a machine; could be multiple or imperfect gods.
• Darwin: natural selection explains apparent design.
• Mill: natural evil contradicts intelligent benevolent designer
Evaluation:
• still persuasive for those viewing science and theism as compatible (Tennant)
• relies heavily on subjective perception of design.
, Ontological argument
• key thinkers: Anselm, Descartes, Gaunilo, Kant
• God's existence can be deduced a priori through reason
• Anselm: God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.” if he exists only in mind, a greater being could
exist in reality- therefore, god must exist.
• Descartes: existence is a necessary attribute of a perfect being, just as three angles belong to a triangle.
Criticisms:
• Gaunilo: parody of the “perfect island”
• Kant: existence is not a predicate- it adds nothing to a concept
Evaluation:
• effective only for those who already believe- shows faiths rational coherence, not proof.
, Arguments for the existence of God
Paley's Design Argument
1 Paley's argument is based on his observation of the world, so it is:
• a posteriori and inductive
• a ‘probability’ argument and not a proof
It is based on three main sets of observations:
• the complexity of the biological world (e.g. the eye, and the laws of nature generally).
• the regularity of the orbits of the heavenly bodies and of the seasons of the year.
• the purpose of a designer (god) seen in this complexity and purpose.
Paley argues inductively from what we can see in the world (the appearance of design) back to the supposed
cause (God).
2 Paley's Design Argument is based on the analogy between the properties of a watch and the
properties of the universe.
• He begins with the observation of a stone and then a watch. A watch has complex parts put together for a
purpose, so it must have been designed by a watch maker.
• Similarly the universe has parts that function together for a purpose. So the universe must have been designed by
a universe maker.
• The design of the universe is far more wonderful than that of a watch, so its designer is far greater than any
human: its designer is God.
• Just as apparent flaws in a watch, and any ignorance we may have about watches, do not destroy the inference
to designer/watchmaker, our lack of knowledge about the universe does not destroy our inference that it was
designed.
• Paley supports his arguments by referring to the perfect design of an eye for vision and to the perfect adaptation
of animals such as fish and birds to their environment.
• design is also seen in the perfect regularity of orbits of the heavenly bodies.
3 Hume's critique of Design Arguments
Hume's critique:
• The cause of design in the universe needs only to be proportional to its effect. Even if we grant that the universe
was designed, there is no evidence that this was the god of christian theism. A lesser being could have designed
the universe.
• the existence of evil and imperfection in the world suggests a limited designer.
• analogies between the universe and machines are flawed. The world is more like a vegetable, and vegetables
design and reproduce themselves.
Paley's Design Argument
Analogy • analogy is an inference where information or meaning is transferred from one subject to
another. In the design argument, Paley is transferring his inference about the organisation
and design of watches to the organisation and design of nature. In simple terms his
analogical argument is a comparison between two systems.
Anthropic principle • Related to humans, there is a direct link between our observation of the universe and the
‘boundary conditions’ which brought it into existence. In other words, the boundary
conditions (also known as ‘cosmological constants’) had to be ‘fine tuned’ by god,
otherwise intelligent life could never have developed: it is no accident that we are here.
anthropomorphism • the habit of attributing human form or ideas to beings other than humans, particularly to
gods and animals. The adjective is anthropomorphic.
A priori • arguments which rely on logical deduction, and not on sense experience. An a priori
argument is prior to/before sense experience.
A posteriori • arguments which depend on sense experience. For example, ‘oak trees grow from
acorns’ can only be known by sense experience, and not by logic.
Inductive • arguments which use reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for
(not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. Inductive arguments are probabilistic.
They can be used to argue from what we see in the world back to the supposed cause.
Natural theology • the view that questions about gods existence, nature and attributes can be answered
without referring to scripture or to any other form of special revelation, by using reason,
science, history and observation.
Premise • a proposition that supports, or helps to support, a conclusion.
Teleological • Telos in Greek means ‘end’ or ‘purpose’, so the teleological argument for the existence of
god seeks to show that we can perceive evidence of deliberate design in the natural world.
, Arguments for the existence of God
Cosmological argument
• key thinkers- Aristotle, Aquinas, Leibniz, Copplestone, Hume, Russel
• everything that exists must have a cause. The universe exists- therefore it must have a cause, and that is God.
Aquinas’ three ways:
• motion: everything in motion is moved by something else- first mover (God).
• causation: every effect has a cause- first cause (God).
• contingency: everything contingent depends on something else- necessary being (God).
Leibniz:
• principle of sufficient reason- there must be an explanation for everything, including why there is something rather
than nothing.
Criticisms:
• Hume: no experience of universe making- cant infer god; causation may be mental habit.
• Russel: “universe is just a brute fact”
• Scientific challenges: big bang may explain beginning without divine cause
Evaluation:
• strength: supports idea of god as necessary being (consistent with classical theism)
• weakness: fallacy of composition (just because things have causes doesn't mean the universe as a whole does)
Telelological argument
• key thinkers- Peley, Tennant, Hume, Dawkins
• order and purpose in the universe suggest an intelligent designer.
• paley’s watch analogy: a watches complexity implies a designer; same for the universe- God.
• Tennant's anthropic principle: universes fine-tuning allows for intelligent life- suggest divine design.
• aesthetic principle: humans appreciate beauty beyond survival need- evidence of design by god.
Criticisms:
• Hume: weak analogy- world is not like a machine; could be multiple or imperfect gods.
• Darwin: natural selection explains apparent design.
• Mill: natural evil contradicts intelligent benevolent designer
Evaluation:
• still persuasive for those viewing science and theism as compatible (Tennant)
• relies heavily on subjective perception of design.
, Ontological argument
• key thinkers: Anselm, Descartes, Gaunilo, Kant
• God's existence can be deduced a priori through reason
• Anselm: God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.” if he exists only in mind, a greater being could
exist in reality- therefore, god must exist.
• Descartes: existence is a necessary attribute of a perfect being, just as three angles belong to a triangle.
Criticisms:
• Gaunilo: parody of the “perfect island”
• Kant: existence is not a predicate- it adds nothing to a concept
Evaluation:
• effective only for those who already believe- shows faiths rational coherence, not proof.
, Arguments for the existence of God
Paley's Design Argument
1 Paley's argument is based on his observation of the world, so it is:
• a posteriori and inductive
• a ‘probability’ argument and not a proof
It is based on three main sets of observations:
• the complexity of the biological world (e.g. the eye, and the laws of nature generally).
• the regularity of the orbits of the heavenly bodies and of the seasons of the year.
• the purpose of a designer (god) seen in this complexity and purpose.
Paley argues inductively from what we can see in the world (the appearance of design) back to the supposed
cause (God).
2 Paley's Design Argument is based on the analogy between the properties of a watch and the
properties of the universe.
• He begins with the observation of a stone and then a watch. A watch has complex parts put together for a
purpose, so it must have been designed by a watch maker.
• Similarly the universe has parts that function together for a purpose. So the universe must have been designed by
a universe maker.
• The design of the universe is far more wonderful than that of a watch, so its designer is far greater than any
human: its designer is God.
• Just as apparent flaws in a watch, and any ignorance we may have about watches, do not destroy the inference
to designer/watchmaker, our lack of knowledge about the universe does not destroy our inference that it was
designed.
• Paley supports his arguments by referring to the perfect design of an eye for vision and to the perfect adaptation
of animals such as fish and birds to their environment.
• design is also seen in the perfect regularity of orbits of the heavenly bodies.
3 Hume's critique of Design Arguments
Hume's critique:
• The cause of design in the universe needs only to be proportional to its effect. Even if we grant that the universe
was designed, there is no evidence that this was the god of christian theism. A lesser being could have designed
the universe.
• the existence of evil and imperfection in the world suggests a limited designer.
• analogies between the universe and machines are flawed. The world is more like a vegetable, and vegetables
design and reproduce themselves.
