Human Growth and Development
CLEP Exam Questions and Answers42
nature vs. nurture controversy - ANSWERS-it is agreed that both have some influence in
development, but some people think it is more one than the other.
biologically built vs. environment
tabula rasa - ANSWERS-this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of
the nature versus nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on
Discontinuity or Stage Theories - ANSWERS-Argues that development progresses through a
series of stages. Each stage involves a specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves
on to the next stage. The developing person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively.
Continuity Theories - ANSWERS-Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth
process. Developmental change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills
and behavior improve but they do not change in a qualitatively.)
Child Development vs. Life Span - ANSWERS-Some theories of development argue that
development is complete at the end of childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget
are examples).
Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout
the entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective).
universality vs. context specific - ANSWERS-a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods
(such as Piaget proposed for his theory)
Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are
differences in development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist
cultures versus individualistic cultures)
,Collectivist cultures - ANSWERS-Places greater value on the common good than individual
achievement
Individualistic cultures - ANSWERS-values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual
goals
accommodation - ANSWERS-by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme
assimilation - ANSWERS-by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it
into an existing scheme
Scheme - ANSWERS-by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events
disequilibrium - ANSWERS-what happens when a child understands the world in a particular
way (their scheme) then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.
constructivism - ANSWERS-Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema
(organized patterns of thought or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the
environment.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development - ANSWERS-sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operations, formal operations (each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking
instead of just acquiring more information over time)
sensorimotor stage - ANSWERS-0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end
of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be
sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses.
,By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for
another thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was
observed). Piaget.
preoperational stage - ANSWERS-2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language),
are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives),
use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect),
use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects),
and think semilogically. Piaget.
concrete operations - ANSWERS-7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object
changing form is still the same object),
reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start),
conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance
changes),
can group things into categories,
and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget.
Formal operations - ANSWERS-12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and
scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he
thought not all people reach this stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-
deductive reasoning. Piaget.
information processing approach - ANSWERS-a relatively new approach that uses the computer
as a metaphor for the human mind (they use the two-store model of memory)
learning theory or the behaviorist perspective - ANSWERS-describes developmental change as a
product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a
change in observable behavior (and behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment).
, (key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura)
John Watson - ANSWERS-founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth
we only have these emotions: love, anger, and fear)
learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of
learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories).
Pavlov's classical conditioning - ANSWERS-(sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning)
Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing
a reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus.
{First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned
Second letter = stimulus/response}
Before conditioning: US -> UR
Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR
After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka
going back to the original behavior)
higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS
Stimulus generalization - ANSWERS-When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned)
carries over to another related area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other
bugs because they are so similar.
stimulus discrimination - ANSWERS-only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC)
response for the specific/exact stimulus (not similar ones like generalization)
CLEP Exam Questions and Answers42
nature vs. nurture controversy - ANSWERS-it is agreed that both have some influence in
development, but some people think it is more one than the other.
biologically built vs. environment
tabula rasa - ANSWERS-this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of
the nature versus nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on
Discontinuity or Stage Theories - ANSWERS-Argues that development progresses through a
series of stages. Each stage involves a specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves
on to the next stage. The developing person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively.
Continuity Theories - ANSWERS-Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth
process. Developmental change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills
and behavior improve but they do not change in a qualitatively.)
Child Development vs. Life Span - ANSWERS-Some theories of development argue that
development is complete at the end of childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget
are examples).
Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout
the entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective).
universality vs. context specific - ANSWERS-a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods
(such as Piaget proposed for his theory)
Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are
differences in development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist
cultures versus individualistic cultures)
,Collectivist cultures - ANSWERS-Places greater value on the common good than individual
achievement
Individualistic cultures - ANSWERS-values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual
goals
accommodation - ANSWERS-by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme
assimilation - ANSWERS-by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it
into an existing scheme
Scheme - ANSWERS-by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events
disequilibrium - ANSWERS-what happens when a child understands the world in a particular
way (their scheme) then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.
constructivism - ANSWERS-Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema
(organized patterns of thought or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the
environment.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development - ANSWERS-sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operations, formal operations (each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking
instead of just acquiring more information over time)
sensorimotor stage - ANSWERS-0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end
of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be
sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses.
,By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for
another thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was
observed). Piaget.
preoperational stage - ANSWERS-2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language),
are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives),
use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect),
use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects),
and think semilogically. Piaget.
concrete operations - ANSWERS-7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object
changing form is still the same object),
reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start),
conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance
changes),
can group things into categories,
and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget.
Formal operations - ANSWERS-12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and
scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he
thought not all people reach this stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-
deductive reasoning. Piaget.
information processing approach - ANSWERS-a relatively new approach that uses the computer
as a metaphor for the human mind (they use the two-store model of memory)
learning theory or the behaviorist perspective - ANSWERS-describes developmental change as a
product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a
change in observable behavior (and behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment).
, (key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura)
John Watson - ANSWERS-founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth
we only have these emotions: love, anger, and fear)
learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of
learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories).
Pavlov's classical conditioning - ANSWERS-(sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning)
Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing
a reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus.
{First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned
Second letter = stimulus/response}
Before conditioning: US -> UR
Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR
After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka
going back to the original behavior)
higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS
Stimulus generalization - ANSWERS-When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned)
carries over to another related area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other
bugs because they are so similar.
stimulus discrimination - ANSWERS-only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC)
response for the specific/exact stimulus (not similar ones like generalization)
