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FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE: NUR 631
COMPLETE AND VERIFIED STUDY GUIDE
Topic 1:
• Cell structure: Nucleus, Nucleolus, DNA/RNA, mRNA, tRNA, Cell
membrane,
Ribosome, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Smooth ER, Rough ER, and Golgi
complex. o Nucleus: Control center of the cell that directs the
cell's activities like City Hall (Mayor). o Nucleolus: the central
membrane-bound organelle that manages cellular functions.
Contains DNA
o DNA: Each strand is made up of nucleotides, which in turn
consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of
four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G). The sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes
information for building and maintaining an organism. Found
in nucleolus.
o RNA: It also consists of nucleotides, with a sugar (ribose), a
phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine
(A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). RNA is involved
in various cellular processes, including protein synthesis. Found
in cytoplasm. o mRNA: type of RNA (ribonucleic acid)
molecule that plays a crucial role in the process of protein
synthesis in cells. It serves as a temporary copy of the genetic
instructions encoded in DNA, carrying this information from
the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where
protein synthesis occurs. o tRNA: helps in the actual assembly
of amino acids into a protein at the ribosome. It acts as an
adaptor molecule that interprets the genetic code in mRNA and
brings the appropriate amino acid to the growing polypeptide
chain.
o Plasma membranes: flexible boundary between the cell and its
environment; allows materials such as water and nutrients to
enter and waste products to leave. Amphiphilic: meaning has
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion
o Ribosomes: Make proteins like a factory. Consists of RNA
protein complexes; has free and attached ribosomes in cells
(attached to endoplasmic reticulum)
o Lysosomes: Cell's clean-up crew. Gets rid of waste like a
sanitation worker; Function is autodigestion and autophagy aka
intracellular digestion; Originate from the golgi complex
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o Mitochondria "Powerhouse" of the cell. Makes energy for the
cell like a power plant. Area for cellular respiration (oxidative
phosphorylation) produces ATP = energy source; oxidative
process.
o Endoplasmic reticulum: tubular saclike channels has smooth
vs rough structures; rough portion is studded with ribosomes.
Function: site of protein synthesis via ribosomes and senses
cellular stress; Gets it ready for transport. Smooth is the
absence of ribosomes, lipid metabolism
o Golgi apparatus: Flattened smooth membrane, has secretory
vesicles and cisternae; receives proteins from the endoplasmic
reticulum and are packaged in the Golgi complex into vesicle to
be secreted by cell when needed; Function: refining plant
involve modifying, sorting, and packaging of proteins
o Lipid bilayer: Three major types of membrane lipids are
cholesterol,
phospholipids, and glycolipids. → function to prevent water
soluble molecules from crossing membrane
• Apoptosis vs Necrosis
• Apoptosis = programmed cell death; internal clock; considered
physiological.
• Necrosis (autolysis) = considered pathological. There are no
inflammatory changes whereas necrosis includes inflammatory
changes.
• Type of necrosis.
• Coagulative: denaturation of proteins, typically affects kidneys. Jelly-
like state to a firm state
• Fat: caused by lipases – soap-like; saponification. Breast, pancreas,
and abdominal structures
• Liquefactive: typically affects neurons/glial cells in the brain; cells
digested by their own hydrolases – tissue becomes soft; walled off
from healthy tissues
FORMING CYSTS
• Caseous: a combination of two, hard shell on the outside, liquid on
inside; a combo of coagulative and liquefactive. Cells denature, but
debris is walled off. Common in TB patients called Ghon complex
which is radiographic findings in X-rays
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• Gangrenous necrosis: Dry vs Wet gangrene Dry gangrene occurs
when the blood supply to tissue is cut off. The area becomes dry,
shrinks, and turns black. Wet gangrene occurs if bacteria invade this
tissue; diabetic gangrene.
• Know the terms: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia,
dysplasia, anaplasia.
• Atrophy: Decrease/shrinkage in cellular size.is wasting away,
especially as a result of the degeneration of cells, or become vestigial
during evolution. It can be due to decreased nutrition, ischemia,
reduced stimulation. Example, Rhabdo
• Hypertrophy; Increase in number of cells (organs). The enlargement
of an organ or tissue from the increase in size of its cells. From
constant stimulation. Can be physiological → exercising large
muscles; can be pathological → cardiomegaly
• Hyperplasia: Increase in number of cells. The enlargement of an
organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its
cells, often as an initial stage in cancer development. Example:
endothelial lining uterus before periods builds up layers before
shedding. moles; breasts getting bigger post pregnancy
• Metaplasia: Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by
another (epithelium changes in smokers) A protective, potentially
reversible if the stimulus is removed; phenotypic change in which
differentiated cells of one type are replaced by a different and less
mature cell type; takes time. Similar to dysplasia, however reversible.
Example: Barrett's esophagus from smoking
• Dysplasia: abnormal changes in size, shape and organization of
mature cells (can lead to cervical cancer).Acute confusional states,
deficits in attention and coherence of thoughts and action, Secondary
to drug intoxication, metabolic disorders, nervous system diseases, or
brain damage. Disorganized appearance of the cell because of
abnormal appearance of cell shape size and arrangement. High chance
of being cancerous. Not reversible. Examples: carcinomas
• Anaplasia: lack of cellular differentiation; cancer cells that divide
rapidly and have little or no resemblance to normal cells. Can no
longer differentiate on a cellular level
• Understand the genetic diseases (Autosomal dominant, Autosomal
recessive, x-linked dominant, x-linked recessive). Know the
examples. o Autosomal dominant: A genetic trait that only
requires one copy of the dominant allele on an autosomal
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chromosome for the trait to be expressed; example: Huntington's
disease. o Autosomal recessive: A genetic trait that requires two
copies of the recessive allele on autosomal chromosomes for the trait
to be expressed; example: cystic fibrosis.
o X-linked dominant: A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome,
and one copy of the dominant allele is sufficient for expression;
example: Rett syndrome.
o X-linked recessive: A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome, and
expression requires two copies of the recessive allele; example:
hemophilia A.
• Genetics: BRCA1 and BRCA2 o Tumor suppressor genes inactivated o
Associated with increased risk of breast, ovarian, prostate, and
pancreatic cancer o Inherited defect provides 50% risk of developing
breast cancer
• Symptom of Trisomy21 • Down syndrome: Trisomy 21=(XXX) 3x’s,
Trisomy 21 with physical & mental disorders, 80% reach age 60, 95% of
down syndrome =non-
disjunctions,1%mosaic 9some trisomy, some normal), 4%
Translocation
(chromosome 14 has extra 21 genes)
• Physical features: slanting eyes, small chin, round face, flat nasal bridge,
Brushfield spots in the iris, abnormal outer ears, clinodactyly (single palmar
crease), and flattened nose
• Cause of the damage due to Carbon monoxide
o Carbon Monoxide poisoning - SPO2 monitors what is bound to
Hgb but not specific molecules; carbon monoxide binds up the
same as oxygen so SPO2 appears normal but RBCs bound with
carbon monoxide which causes Tissue damage because cells are
deprived of oxygen leading to tissue necrosis. Supplemental
oxygen is needed o Free radical generation and
mitochondrial collapse
• Neural tube defect: protein indicator o Alpha-fetoprotein
• Know Autoimmune diseases (select all that apply) o Grave Disease o
Myasthenia Gravis o Rheumatoid Arthritis o Hashimoto’s
o Lupus o Type 1 Diabetes o Celiac Disease o Psoriasis o Vitiligo
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FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE: NUR 631
COMPLETE AND VERIFIED STUDY GUIDE
Topic 1:
• Cell structure: Nucleus, Nucleolus, DNA/RNA, mRNA, tRNA, Cell
membrane,
Ribosome, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Smooth ER, Rough ER, and Golgi
complex. o Nucleus: Control center of the cell that directs the
cell's activities like City Hall (Mayor). o Nucleolus: the central
membrane-bound organelle that manages cellular functions.
Contains DNA
o DNA: Each strand is made up of nucleotides, which in turn
consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of
four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G). The sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes
information for building and maintaining an organism. Found
in nucleolus.
o RNA: It also consists of nucleotides, with a sugar (ribose), a
phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine
(A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). RNA is involved
in various cellular processes, including protein synthesis. Found
in cytoplasm. o mRNA: type of RNA (ribonucleic acid)
molecule that plays a crucial role in the process of protein
synthesis in cells. It serves as a temporary copy of the genetic
instructions encoded in DNA, carrying this information from
the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where
protein synthesis occurs. o tRNA: helps in the actual assembly
of amino acids into a protein at the ribosome. It acts as an
adaptor molecule that interprets the genetic code in mRNA and
brings the appropriate amino acid to the growing polypeptide
chain.
o Plasma membranes: flexible boundary between the cell and its
environment; allows materials such as water and nutrients to
enter and waste products to leave. Amphiphilic: meaning has
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion
o Ribosomes: Make proteins like a factory. Consists of RNA
protein complexes; has free and attached ribosomes in cells
(attached to endoplasmic reticulum)
o Lysosomes: Cell's clean-up crew. Gets rid of waste like a
sanitation worker; Function is autodigestion and autophagy aka
intracellular digestion; Originate from the golgi complex
1
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o Mitochondria "Powerhouse" of the cell. Makes energy for the
cell like a power plant. Area for cellular respiration (oxidative
phosphorylation) produces ATP = energy source; oxidative
process.
o Endoplasmic reticulum: tubular saclike channels has smooth
vs rough structures; rough portion is studded with ribosomes.
Function: site of protein synthesis via ribosomes and senses
cellular stress; Gets it ready for transport. Smooth is the
absence of ribosomes, lipid metabolism
o Golgi apparatus: Flattened smooth membrane, has secretory
vesicles and cisternae; receives proteins from the endoplasmic
reticulum and are packaged in the Golgi complex into vesicle to
be secreted by cell when needed; Function: refining plant
involve modifying, sorting, and packaging of proteins
o Lipid bilayer: Three major types of membrane lipids are
cholesterol,
phospholipids, and glycolipids. → function to prevent water
soluble molecules from crossing membrane
• Apoptosis vs Necrosis
• Apoptosis = programmed cell death; internal clock; considered
physiological.
• Necrosis (autolysis) = considered pathological. There are no
inflammatory changes whereas necrosis includes inflammatory
changes.
• Type of necrosis.
• Coagulative: denaturation of proteins, typically affects kidneys. Jelly-
like state to a firm state
• Fat: caused by lipases – soap-like; saponification. Breast, pancreas,
and abdominal structures
• Liquefactive: typically affects neurons/glial cells in the brain; cells
digested by their own hydrolases – tissue becomes soft; walled off
from healthy tissues
FORMING CYSTS
• Caseous: a combination of two, hard shell on the outside, liquid on
inside; a combo of coagulative and liquefactive. Cells denature, but
debris is walled off. Common in TB patients called Ghon complex
which is radiographic findings in X-rays
2
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• Gangrenous necrosis: Dry vs Wet gangrene Dry gangrene occurs
when the blood supply to tissue is cut off. The area becomes dry,
shrinks, and turns black. Wet gangrene occurs if bacteria invade this
tissue; diabetic gangrene.
• Know the terms: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia,
dysplasia, anaplasia.
• Atrophy: Decrease/shrinkage in cellular size.is wasting away,
especially as a result of the degeneration of cells, or become vestigial
during evolution. It can be due to decreased nutrition, ischemia,
reduced stimulation. Example, Rhabdo
• Hypertrophy; Increase in number of cells (organs). The enlargement
of an organ or tissue from the increase in size of its cells. From
constant stimulation. Can be physiological → exercising large
muscles; can be pathological → cardiomegaly
• Hyperplasia: Increase in number of cells. The enlargement of an
organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its
cells, often as an initial stage in cancer development. Example:
endothelial lining uterus before periods builds up layers before
shedding. moles; breasts getting bigger post pregnancy
• Metaplasia: Reversible replacement of one mature cell type by
another (epithelium changes in smokers) A protective, potentially
reversible if the stimulus is removed; phenotypic change in which
differentiated cells of one type are replaced by a different and less
mature cell type; takes time. Similar to dysplasia, however reversible.
Example: Barrett's esophagus from smoking
• Dysplasia: abnormal changes in size, shape and organization of
mature cells (can lead to cervical cancer).Acute confusional states,
deficits in attention and coherence of thoughts and action, Secondary
to drug intoxication, metabolic disorders, nervous system diseases, or
brain damage. Disorganized appearance of the cell because of
abnormal appearance of cell shape size and arrangement. High chance
of being cancerous. Not reversible. Examples: carcinomas
• Anaplasia: lack of cellular differentiation; cancer cells that divide
rapidly and have little or no resemblance to normal cells. Can no
longer differentiate on a cellular level
• Understand the genetic diseases (Autosomal dominant, Autosomal
recessive, x-linked dominant, x-linked recessive). Know the
examples. o Autosomal dominant: A genetic trait that only
requires one copy of the dominant allele on an autosomal
3
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chromosome for the trait to be expressed; example: Huntington's
disease. o Autosomal recessive: A genetic trait that requires two
copies of the recessive allele on autosomal chromosomes for the trait
to be expressed; example: cystic fibrosis.
o X-linked dominant: A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome,
and one copy of the dominant allele is sufficient for expression;
example: Rett syndrome.
o X-linked recessive: A genetic trait carried on the X chromosome, and
expression requires two copies of the recessive allele; example:
hemophilia A.
• Genetics: BRCA1 and BRCA2 o Tumor suppressor genes inactivated o
Associated with increased risk of breast, ovarian, prostate, and
pancreatic cancer o Inherited defect provides 50% risk of developing
breast cancer
• Symptom of Trisomy21 • Down syndrome: Trisomy 21=(XXX) 3x’s,
Trisomy 21 with physical & mental disorders, 80% reach age 60, 95% of
down syndrome =non-
disjunctions,1%mosaic 9some trisomy, some normal), 4%
Translocation
(chromosome 14 has extra 21 genes)
• Physical features: slanting eyes, small chin, round face, flat nasal bridge,
Brushfield spots in the iris, abnormal outer ears, clinodactyly (single palmar
crease), and flattened nose
• Cause of the damage due to Carbon monoxide
o Carbon Monoxide poisoning - SPO2 monitors what is bound to
Hgb but not specific molecules; carbon monoxide binds up the
same as oxygen so SPO2 appears normal but RBCs bound with
carbon monoxide which causes Tissue damage because cells are
deprived of oxygen leading to tissue necrosis. Supplemental
oxygen is needed o Free radical generation and
mitochondrial collapse
• Neural tube defect: protein indicator o Alpha-fetoprotein
• Know Autoimmune diseases (select all that apply) o Grave Disease o
Myasthenia Gravis o Rheumatoid Arthritis o Hashimoto’s
o Lupus o Type 1 Diabetes o Celiac Disease o Psoriasis o Vitiligo
4
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