Final Exams 1,2, 3 Reviews -Essentials of Pathophysiology
(NUR2063) Essentials of Pathophysiology – Exam #1 Review Sheet
Covers Modules 1, 2, and 3 – Chapters 1, 2, 6, 12, and 13
1. Define pathophysiology. What does the study of pathophysiology include? The study of the disorder
breakdown of the human body’s function. Includes Etiology: study or causes of phenomena,
Pathogenesis: development or evolution of disease, Clinical Manifestations: signs and symptoms,
Treatment implications- Understanding of all of the following of disorder or disease may determine
which treatments could be helpful.
2. Review the difference between signs and symptoms/objective versus subjective data
Signs- objective or observed manifestation of disease EX: rash, change in temperature
Symptoms- subjective feeling of abnormality in the body EX: pain, nausea
3. What is epidemiology? Review the different levels of disease prevention such as primary, secondary,
and tertiary as well as examples for each.
The study of the patterns of disease involving population; Types: Primary- reducing exposure
for susceptible persons EX: immunizations; Secondary- Early detection, screening or
management of disease EX: cancer screenings, monthly breast examinations; Tertiary-
Preventing further complications from disease EX: rehabilitation, supportive care, reducing
disability
4. What is homeostasis? A state in which all systems are in balance, a state of equilibrium.
5. Review the three different stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) including the alarm
stage, adaptation/resistance, and exhaustion stage. What complications can occur if stressors are
not resolved? Alarm stage- when we encounter a stressful situation. Causes us to go into fight or
flight mode. (sympathetic nervous system) Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone
(CRH) to activate the sympathetic nervous system SNS and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)/
Resistance Stage- activity of the nervous and endocrine systems in returning the body to
homeostasis; If the stressor is not removed then exhaustion occurs. Exhaustion- Point to where the
body can no longer return to homeostasis, body becomes depleted and damage can occur.
6. What hormones are released during the alarm stage and what effects do they have on the body?
CRH and ACTH
7. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during “fight-or-flight” response? Parasympathetic- rest and digest
Sympathetic- fight or flight. When body is in fight or flight its in survival mode. Directs nutrients and
blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs and skeletal system. Decreased saliva,
urination, stomach
8. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosome, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus- control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here. Production of messenger
RNA- contains the instructions needed to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells contain only
one nucleus, but liver and skeletal muscle cells contain more. Red blood cells have no nucleus. DNA
comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus/ Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell, that contain
their own DNA, cellular respiration, production of ATP from glucose/ Ribosomes- site of protein
production/ Endoplasmic reticulum- folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth
and rough. Smooth- ribosomes are not attached, Rough- ribosomes are attached/ Golgi Apparatus-
sorts and packages proteins/ Lysosome- breaks down food particles or worn out cell parts/ Peroxisome-
contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products
,9. Review the differences between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. Which electrolytes are
found in high concentration outside the cell versus inside the cell? The ECF has a high concentration
of sodium. The ICF contains mostly potassium, magnesium, and hydrogen phosphate.
Inside cell- ICF 75% Outside cell- ECF (Urine and saliva) 25% Interstitial fluid- Plasma, in between cells
10. Review how fluid is transported across the plasma membrane of the cell. Review the difference
between diffusion and osmosis.
Through Active and passive transport, diffusion- tendency of molecules to distribute evenly throughout
the environment. Passive membrane transport- movements of molecules from high-low/ osmosis-
water is distributed through interstitial space and intracellular compartment. high- low concentration
11. Review ways that fluids enter the human body (intake) versus ways fluid is excreted (output) out of
the body.
Urination and sweating are ways fluid is excreted. Ways to intake water are orally or IV fluids.
12. Review the differences between dehydration and hypotonic hydration. What are signs, symptoms,
and causes for each?
Dehydration- Losing fluid from ECF, imbalance in homeostasis, water outputs exceed intake: dry or
cotton mouth, extreme thirst, dry skin, decreased urine output(oliguria); prolonged hydration leads to
weight loss, fever, mental confusion/ Hypotonic Hydration- overhydration or water intoxication, water
moves from ECF to ICF (hyponatremia), renal or kidney failure, nausea and vomiting, bounding pulse.
Can be treated by an intravenous administration of hypertonic saline solution.
13. What is edema? Review the various factors that can contribute to edema.
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in capillary
hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in plasma proteins
(such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due to cancer or removal of
lymph tissue)
14. Review the signs and symptoms of hypernatremia/hyponatremia- HYPER: EXCESS SODIUM >145
caused by dehydration, loss of water in ECF, Results in excess thirst, lethargy, muscle twitching and
convulsions. /HYPO: LESS SODIUM <135, caused by water retention, loss of sodium from vomiting,
diarrhea, burns, excess water ingestion. hyperkalemia/hypokalemia HYPER- EXCESS POTASSIUM IN
SERUM >5mEq/L RENAL FAILURE, SEVERE BURNS, OVER INGESTION OF POTASSIUM SUPPLEMENTS
(DO NOT PUSH IV POTASSIUM. COULD CAUSE FATAL CONSEQUENCES signs: cramping, irregular
heartbeat, diarrhea/ HYPO-TOO LITTLE POTASSIUM <3.5 VOMITTING, DIARRHEA, INCREASED
INSULIN signs and symptoms include: muscle weakness, paralysis, irregular heartbeat
hypercalcemia/hypocalcemia HYPER- EXCESS CALCIUM >10.5 IN BLOOD. DUE TO
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM, EXCESSIVE VITAMIN D, LUEKEMIA AND BONE TUMORS. SIGNS:
DIMINISHED REFLEXES, HEADACHE, MUSCLE WEAKNESS, RENAL CALCULI (KIDNEY STONE), CARDIAC
ARRYTHMIAS. HYPO: LOW LEVELS <8.5 VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY, HYPOPARATHYROIDISM. SIGNS:
HYPERACTIVE REFLEXES (TREMORS, CRAMPS), POSITIVE TROUSSEAU SIGN, POSITIVE CHVOSTEK
SIGN. hypomagnesemia/hypermagnesemia HYPER- >2.5 EXCESS MAGNESIUM IN THE
BLOODSTREAM. RENAL FAILURE, EXCESSIVE LAXATIVE AND ANTACID USE. SIGNS: MUSCLE
WEAKNESS, DIMINISHED REFLEXES; SIMILAR TO HYPERCALCEMIA. HYPO: < 1.8 LOW MAGNESIUM
LEVELS INADEQUATE INTAKE, CHRONIC ALCOHOLISM, MALNUTRITION, PREGNANCY, DIARRHEA,
DIURETICS, STRESS. SIGNS: SIMILAR TO HYPOCALCEMIA. hypophosphatemia/hyperphosphatemia
HYPER: >4.5 EXCESS PHOSPHOROUS EXCESS PHOSPHATE IN THE BLOOD. IF PHOSPHATE IS
IMBALANCED THEN CALCIUM IS. KIDNEY PROBLEMS, ADRENAL GLAND PROBLEMS. SIGNS: SIMILAR
, TO HYPERCALCEMIA. HYPO: <2.5 LOW PHOSPHATE. ALCOHOLISM. What electrolyte imbalance
would results in positive trousseau’s and Chvostek’s sign? CALCIUM
15. What are the cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation?
WHENEVER TISSUES ARE INJURED. INCLUDES PHYSICAL TRAUMA OR INFECTION BY VIRUSES, FUNGI, OR
BACTERIA. INFLAMMATION HELPS DESTROY OR GET RID OF FOREIGN PRODUCTS. SETS THE STAGE FOR
REPAIR. SIGNS: REDNESS, HEAT, SWELLING (EDEMA), PAIN, AND LOSS OF FUNCTION (PEOPLE WHO
HAVE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
ACUTE: SHORT, LASTING A FEW DAYS OR WEEKS. CHRONIC: EXTENDS OVER A LONG PERIOD OF TIME.
SYSTEMIC: FEVER, LETHARGY, MUSCLE CATABALISM/ LOCALIZED: FIVE CARDINAL SIGNS, ACUTE AND
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, CAN LEAD TO SYSTEMIC INVOLVEMENT
C-REACTIVE PROTEIN- detects inflammation. Increase in inflammation.
ERYTHROCITE SEDIMENTATION RATE (ESR)- detects inflammation. Test measures the rate at which the
red blood cells, or erythrocytes, in a sample of blood settle at the bottom. ESR increases with
inflammation.
ANTIBODIES (IMMUNOGLOBULINS)- PROTEINS SECRETED BY ACTIVATED B CELLS OR PLASMA CELLS.
IGM, IGA, IGG, IGD, IGE
16. Review the role of histamines, bradykinin (BREAK IN SKIN THEN INJURY TO CAPILLARIES CAUSES
RELEASE OF BRADYKININ-STIMULATES PAIN RECEPTORS. BRADYKININS STIMULATES MAST CELLS
AND BASOPHILS TO RELEASE HISTAMINE, PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES. These cause
vasodilation- increase blood flow and capillary permeability. prostaglandins , and leukotrienes.
What effect do they have on the body during an immune response?
17. Review the differences between innate and adaptive immunity? Which is specific? ADAPTIVE,
SOMETHING YOU DEVELOP OVERTIME. SLOW TO DEVELOP. INCLUDES B AND T CELLS. MEMORY
CELLS HELP OUR BODY FIGHT INFECTION. Which is nonspecific? INNATE, SOMETHING WE ARE
BORN WITH THAT PROVIDE PROTECTION. IMMEDIATE RESPONSE. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
BARRIERS. WHITE BLOOD CELLS CALLED PHAGOCYTES- NEUTROPHILS AND MACROPHAGES.
COUGHING, SNEEZING, URINATING. ENZYME CALLED LYSOZYME IN SALIVA. (ANTIGENS ARE
ANYTHING THAT PROVOKES AN IMMUNE RESPONSE; FOREIGN SUBSTANCE.)
18. What factors contribute to antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms? MICROORGANISMS GAIN
RESISTANCE TOWARD ANTIBIOTICS. CAUSED BY EXCESSIVE USE OF ANTIBIOTICS OR
SUBTHERAPEUTIC DOSING. How can we prevent the spread of microorganisms?
19. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
PASSIVE: TRANSFERRING INNATE PROTECTION FROM ONE INDIVIDUAL TO ANOTHER. IMMUNE
PROTECTION RIGHT AWAY. DOESN’T LAST VERY LONG. EX: PASSING ANTIBODIES FROM MOM TO
BABY. PASS THROUGH PLACENTA OR BREAST MILK. SEROTHERAPY- DIRECT INJECTION/ INFUSION OF
ANTIBODIES (HUMAN OR ANIMAL). GIVING PLASMA; SNAKE VENOM
(NUR2063) Essentials of Pathophysiology – Exam #1 Review Sheet
Covers Modules 1, 2, and 3 – Chapters 1, 2, 6, 12, and 13
1. Define pathophysiology. What does the study of pathophysiology include? The study of the disorder
breakdown of the human body’s function. Includes Etiology: study or causes of phenomena,
Pathogenesis: development or evolution of disease, Clinical Manifestations: signs and symptoms,
Treatment implications- Understanding of all of the following of disorder or disease may determine
which treatments could be helpful.
2. Review the difference between signs and symptoms/objective versus subjective data
Signs- objective or observed manifestation of disease EX: rash, change in temperature
Symptoms- subjective feeling of abnormality in the body EX: pain, nausea
3. What is epidemiology? Review the different levels of disease prevention such as primary, secondary,
and tertiary as well as examples for each.
The study of the patterns of disease involving population; Types: Primary- reducing exposure
for susceptible persons EX: immunizations; Secondary- Early detection, screening or
management of disease EX: cancer screenings, monthly breast examinations; Tertiary-
Preventing further complications from disease EX: rehabilitation, supportive care, reducing
disability
4. What is homeostasis? A state in which all systems are in balance, a state of equilibrium.
5. Review the three different stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) including the alarm
stage, adaptation/resistance, and exhaustion stage. What complications can occur if stressors are
not resolved? Alarm stage- when we encounter a stressful situation. Causes us to go into fight or
flight mode. (sympathetic nervous system) Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone
(CRH) to activate the sympathetic nervous system SNS and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)/
Resistance Stage- activity of the nervous and endocrine systems in returning the body to
homeostasis; If the stressor is not removed then exhaustion occurs. Exhaustion- Point to where the
body can no longer return to homeostasis, body becomes depleted and damage can occur.
6. What hormones are released during the alarm stage and what effects do they have on the body?
CRH and ACTH
7. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during “fight-or-flight” response? Parasympathetic- rest and digest
Sympathetic- fight or flight. When body is in fight or flight its in survival mode. Directs nutrients and
blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs and skeletal system. Decreased saliva,
urination, stomach
8. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosome, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus- control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here. Production of messenger
RNA- contains the instructions needed to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells contain only
one nucleus, but liver and skeletal muscle cells contain more. Red blood cells have no nucleus. DNA
comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus/ Mitochondria- powerhouse of the cell, that contain
their own DNA, cellular respiration, production of ATP from glucose/ Ribosomes- site of protein
production/ Endoplasmic reticulum- folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth
and rough. Smooth- ribosomes are not attached, Rough- ribosomes are attached/ Golgi Apparatus-
sorts and packages proteins/ Lysosome- breaks down food particles or worn out cell parts/ Peroxisome-
contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products
,9. Review the differences between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. Which electrolytes are
found in high concentration outside the cell versus inside the cell? The ECF has a high concentration
of sodium. The ICF contains mostly potassium, magnesium, and hydrogen phosphate.
Inside cell- ICF 75% Outside cell- ECF (Urine and saliva) 25% Interstitial fluid- Plasma, in between cells
10. Review how fluid is transported across the plasma membrane of the cell. Review the difference
between diffusion and osmosis.
Through Active and passive transport, diffusion- tendency of molecules to distribute evenly throughout
the environment. Passive membrane transport- movements of molecules from high-low/ osmosis-
water is distributed through interstitial space and intracellular compartment. high- low concentration
11. Review ways that fluids enter the human body (intake) versus ways fluid is excreted (output) out of
the body.
Urination and sweating are ways fluid is excreted. Ways to intake water are orally or IV fluids.
12. Review the differences between dehydration and hypotonic hydration. What are signs, symptoms,
and causes for each?
Dehydration- Losing fluid from ECF, imbalance in homeostasis, water outputs exceed intake: dry or
cotton mouth, extreme thirst, dry skin, decreased urine output(oliguria); prolonged hydration leads to
weight loss, fever, mental confusion/ Hypotonic Hydration- overhydration or water intoxication, water
moves from ECF to ICF (hyponatremia), renal or kidney failure, nausea and vomiting, bounding pulse.
Can be treated by an intravenous administration of hypertonic saline solution.
13. What is edema? Review the various factors that can contribute to edema.
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in capillary
hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in plasma proteins
(such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due to cancer or removal of
lymph tissue)
14. Review the signs and symptoms of hypernatremia/hyponatremia- HYPER: EXCESS SODIUM >145
caused by dehydration, loss of water in ECF, Results in excess thirst, lethargy, muscle twitching and
convulsions. /HYPO: LESS SODIUM <135, caused by water retention, loss of sodium from vomiting,
diarrhea, burns, excess water ingestion. hyperkalemia/hypokalemia HYPER- EXCESS POTASSIUM IN
SERUM >5mEq/L RENAL FAILURE, SEVERE BURNS, OVER INGESTION OF POTASSIUM SUPPLEMENTS
(DO NOT PUSH IV POTASSIUM. COULD CAUSE FATAL CONSEQUENCES signs: cramping, irregular
heartbeat, diarrhea/ HYPO-TOO LITTLE POTASSIUM <3.5 VOMITTING, DIARRHEA, INCREASED
INSULIN signs and symptoms include: muscle weakness, paralysis, irregular heartbeat
hypercalcemia/hypocalcemia HYPER- EXCESS CALCIUM >10.5 IN BLOOD. DUE TO
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM, EXCESSIVE VITAMIN D, LUEKEMIA AND BONE TUMORS. SIGNS:
DIMINISHED REFLEXES, HEADACHE, MUSCLE WEAKNESS, RENAL CALCULI (KIDNEY STONE), CARDIAC
ARRYTHMIAS. HYPO: LOW LEVELS <8.5 VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY, HYPOPARATHYROIDISM. SIGNS:
HYPERACTIVE REFLEXES (TREMORS, CRAMPS), POSITIVE TROUSSEAU SIGN, POSITIVE CHVOSTEK
SIGN. hypomagnesemia/hypermagnesemia HYPER- >2.5 EXCESS MAGNESIUM IN THE
BLOODSTREAM. RENAL FAILURE, EXCESSIVE LAXATIVE AND ANTACID USE. SIGNS: MUSCLE
WEAKNESS, DIMINISHED REFLEXES; SIMILAR TO HYPERCALCEMIA. HYPO: < 1.8 LOW MAGNESIUM
LEVELS INADEQUATE INTAKE, CHRONIC ALCOHOLISM, MALNUTRITION, PREGNANCY, DIARRHEA,
DIURETICS, STRESS. SIGNS: SIMILAR TO HYPOCALCEMIA. hypophosphatemia/hyperphosphatemia
HYPER: >4.5 EXCESS PHOSPHOROUS EXCESS PHOSPHATE IN THE BLOOD. IF PHOSPHATE IS
IMBALANCED THEN CALCIUM IS. KIDNEY PROBLEMS, ADRENAL GLAND PROBLEMS. SIGNS: SIMILAR
, TO HYPERCALCEMIA. HYPO: <2.5 LOW PHOSPHATE. ALCOHOLISM. What electrolyte imbalance
would results in positive trousseau’s and Chvostek’s sign? CALCIUM
15. What are the cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation?
WHENEVER TISSUES ARE INJURED. INCLUDES PHYSICAL TRAUMA OR INFECTION BY VIRUSES, FUNGI, OR
BACTERIA. INFLAMMATION HELPS DESTROY OR GET RID OF FOREIGN PRODUCTS. SETS THE STAGE FOR
REPAIR. SIGNS: REDNESS, HEAT, SWELLING (EDEMA), PAIN, AND LOSS OF FUNCTION (PEOPLE WHO
HAVE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
ACUTE: SHORT, LASTING A FEW DAYS OR WEEKS. CHRONIC: EXTENDS OVER A LONG PERIOD OF TIME.
SYSTEMIC: FEVER, LETHARGY, MUSCLE CATABALISM/ LOCALIZED: FIVE CARDINAL SIGNS, ACUTE AND
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, CAN LEAD TO SYSTEMIC INVOLVEMENT
C-REACTIVE PROTEIN- detects inflammation. Increase in inflammation.
ERYTHROCITE SEDIMENTATION RATE (ESR)- detects inflammation. Test measures the rate at which the
red blood cells, or erythrocytes, in a sample of blood settle at the bottom. ESR increases with
inflammation.
ANTIBODIES (IMMUNOGLOBULINS)- PROTEINS SECRETED BY ACTIVATED B CELLS OR PLASMA CELLS.
IGM, IGA, IGG, IGD, IGE
16. Review the role of histamines, bradykinin (BREAK IN SKIN THEN INJURY TO CAPILLARIES CAUSES
RELEASE OF BRADYKININ-STIMULATES PAIN RECEPTORS. BRADYKININS STIMULATES MAST CELLS
AND BASOPHILS TO RELEASE HISTAMINE, PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES. These cause
vasodilation- increase blood flow and capillary permeability. prostaglandins , and leukotrienes.
What effect do they have on the body during an immune response?
17. Review the differences between innate and adaptive immunity? Which is specific? ADAPTIVE,
SOMETHING YOU DEVELOP OVERTIME. SLOW TO DEVELOP. INCLUDES B AND T CELLS. MEMORY
CELLS HELP OUR BODY FIGHT INFECTION. Which is nonspecific? INNATE, SOMETHING WE ARE
BORN WITH THAT PROVIDE PROTECTION. IMMEDIATE RESPONSE. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
BARRIERS. WHITE BLOOD CELLS CALLED PHAGOCYTES- NEUTROPHILS AND MACROPHAGES.
COUGHING, SNEEZING, URINATING. ENZYME CALLED LYSOZYME IN SALIVA. (ANTIGENS ARE
ANYTHING THAT PROVOKES AN IMMUNE RESPONSE; FOREIGN SUBSTANCE.)
18. What factors contribute to antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms? MICROORGANISMS GAIN
RESISTANCE TOWARD ANTIBIOTICS. CAUSED BY EXCESSIVE USE OF ANTIBIOTICS OR
SUBTHERAPEUTIC DOSING. How can we prevent the spread of microorganisms?
19. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
PASSIVE: TRANSFERRING INNATE PROTECTION FROM ONE INDIVIDUAL TO ANOTHER. IMMUNE
PROTECTION RIGHT AWAY. DOESN’T LAST VERY LONG. EX: PASSING ANTIBODIES FROM MOM TO
BABY. PASS THROUGH PLACENTA OR BREAST MILK. SEROTHERAPY- DIRECT INJECTION/ INFUSION OF
ANTIBODIES (HUMAN OR ANIMAL). GIVING PLASMA; SNAKE VENOM
