Essentials of Pathophysiology (NUR2063)- Final Exam A+ Review, study Guides, Exam Prep and
Actual Exam Q&A's | 100% Updated 2026.
Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet
Covers Material from Modules 1-10
Be sure to look over review sheets from Exam #1 and #2 – all previous information is fair game for the Final
exam
1. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during the “fight-or-flight” response?
Sympathetic- fight or flight/ parasympathetic- rest and digest/ When body is in fight or flight its
in survival mode. Directs nutrients and blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs
and skeletal system. Decreased saliva, urination, stomach.
2. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus: control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here, production of
messenger RNA- contains instructions to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells have
only one nucleus, but liver and skeletal systems have more. Red blood cells have no nucleus.
DNA comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus.
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, that contain their own DNA, cellular respiration,
production of ATP from glucose.
Ribosome: site of protein production
Lysosome: breaks down food particles or worn-out cell parts
Endoplasmic reticulum: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth-
ribosome are not attached/ rough- ribosomes are attached.
Peroxisome: contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products.
Golgi apparatus: sorts and package proteins.
3. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
Passive: transferring innate protection from one individual to another. Immune protection right
away but doesn’t last very long. EX: passing antibodies from mom to baby. Passes through
placenta or breast milk. Serotherapy- direct injection/ infusion of antibodies (humans or
animals). Giving plasma, snake venom.
Active: a protective state owing to the body’s immune response as a result of active infection or
immunizations. Body fighting off something or receiving a vaccine.
4. Review the various factors that can contribute to edema
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in
capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in
plasma proteins (such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due
to cancer or removal of lymph tissue)
5. Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic), Type II (Cytotoxic), Type III
(Immune complex), Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated). Know examples and mediating factors for each
type.
Type 1 (Anaphylactic): Occurs within 2-30 minutes of antigen exposure; IgE; Systemic or local;
Mild- hives, stuffy or runny nose. Severe- constriction of throat, swelling of lips; Antihistamines;
epinephrine, corticosteroids; Mediating factors- IgE, mast cells, basophils.
Type II (Cytotoxic): IgG or IgM. Transfusion reactions, hemolytic disease of a newborn- mother
has negative blood type and father has positive. EX: Graves disease. Mediating factors- IgM and
IgG
, Type III (Immune Complex): IgG antibodies form immune complexes. EX: Rheumatoid arthritis.
Mediating factors- antibodies binding to antigens that cause inflammation.
Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated): Takes time for the individual to develop signs and symptoms.
Mediating factors- Cytotoxic T cells.
6. Review the differences between benign and malignant tumors.
Benign- growth is localized, curable; grows slowly, little vascularity, rarely necrotic, cells that do
not invade other parts of the body, encapsulated- surrounded by connective tissue.
Malignant- ignores growth controlling signals, they grow uncontrollably, display anaplasia-
variation in cell size, meaning they look and act different from their original cell. Metastasis- set
up new tumors in other areas. Travel
7. Review signs and symptoms of peptic ulcer disease.
Caused by NSAIDs, stress, smoking and genetics. H Pylori plays a key role in promoting gastric
and duodenal ulcers. Clinical manifestations: epigastric burning pain that is usually relieved by
intake of food (especially dairy products) or antacids. Gastric ulcers: typically occurs on an
empty stomach but may present after a meal. Duodenal ulcers: occurs 2-3 hours after a meal
and is relieved by further food ingestion, life threatening complications such as GI bleeding may
occur without warning.
8. Review differences between functional and mechanical bowel obstructions, know examples for each
Mechanical: adhesions, hernia, tumors, impacted feces, volvulus, intussusception.
Functional: paralytic ileus, due to conditions that inhibit peristalsis, such as certain medications
(anticholinergics), opioids, low fiber diets, etc.
9. Review signs and symptoms of appendicitis.
Inflammation of the vermiform appendix, obstruction of the fecalith. Clinical manifestations:
periumbilical pain, RLQ pain “Mcburney’s point”, nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, RLQ
tenderness, systemic signs of inflammation.
10. Review signs and symptoms of liver disease. Review complications of liver disease
Due to hepatocellular failure ( jaundice, decreased clotting factors, hypoalbuminemia,
decreased vitamin D and K) and portal hypertension (GI congestion, development of esophageal
or gastric varices, hemorrhoids, splenomegaly, ascites).
11. What role does albumin play in the blood? What happens to albumin production with liver failure?
Protein produced by the liver that helps keep fluid in your blood stream, so it doesn’t leak to
other tissues.
12. What are the function of the kidneys? How do we assess for renal disorders?
Excretion- removal of organic waste products from body fluids, Elimination- discharge of waste
products from the body, Regulation- Regulating blood volume levels, ion concentrations, blood
PH, and nutrients. Assess with CVA tenderness.
13. What is polycystic kidney disease? What causes this condition?
Genetically transmitted renal disorder in fluid filled, may be localized to one area or affect both
kidneys; two types: autosomal recessive forms and autosomal dominant types: most common,
symptoms appear later in life.
14. Review the following terms: nephrons, hematuria, proteinuria, nephrolithiasis, pyelonephritis, cystitis
Nephrons: includes multiple sections responsible for filtering out stuff from the blood.
Hematuria: blood in the urine
Proteinuria: protein in the urine. Sign of kidney damage.
, Nephrolithiasis: renal calculi that causes obstruction. This is most common and usually
composed of calcium.
Pyelonephritis: infection of the kidney; most common cause is ascending infection from the
lower urinary tract (typically due to E. Coli). Clinical manifestations: CVA tenderness (classic sign)
accompanied by fever, chills, N/V, anorexia, which increases fever- induced dehydration. Most
effective preventative measure would be early removal of catheters.
Cystitis: inflammation of the bladder lining from infection, trauma, stones; common in women;
symptoms in children include fever, irritability, poor feeding, vomiting, diarrhea. In adults it is
delirium and new one-set incontinence.
15. Review signs and symptoms of acute kidney injury (AKI). Review causes of AKI including prerenal,
intrinsic, and postrenal. Know examples of each type of injury.
Disruptions in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balances; retention of nitrogenous waste
products; increased serum creatinine, decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Prerenal: disruption to renal perfusion, caused by conditions that diminish perfusion of the
kidney- hypotension, hypovolemia (low blood volume), heart failure, renal artery obstruction,
fever, vomiting, diarrhea, burns, NSAIDs, ace inhibitors, angiotensin II blockers.
Postrenal: disruption of renal flow distal to the kidney, caused by obstruction within the urinary
collecting system distal to the kidney; EX: stone in ureter, tumor, enlarged prostate; results in
elevated pressure in bowman’s capsule- impedes glomerular filtration. If prolonged it leads to
acute tubular necrosis (intrinsic) and can lead to irreversible kidney damage.
Intrinsic: Damage/ disruptions within the kidney blood vessels, tubules, and glomeruli. Due to
disfunction of the nephrons and the kidney itself; Damage to renal tubules resulting in acute
tubular necrosis (ATN). Causes include: Reduced blood supply within the kidney’s, Toxic injury-
certain medications, chemotherapy, amphetamines, contrast media, Renal Inflammation,
prolonged postrenal failure.
16. Review signs and symptoms of compartment syndrome? Remember the 5 P’s
Dangerous complication of soft tissue injury leading- results from swelling of injured tissue
within a restrictive fascia. Edema causes increased pressure within the compartment.
5 Ps- Pain out of proportion to the injury, paralysis, paresthesia (numbness and tingling), pallor,
and pulselessness.
17. What are electrolyte reservoirs? What electrolytes are found stored in bones?
18. Review diseases of the bone including: osteomyelitis, osteosarcoma, osteomalacia, rickets, and
osteoporosis
Osteomyelitis: infection in the bone that can be due to a bone fracture, burns, deep pressure
ulcers. Difficult to treat, penetrating wounds. If not treated it could lead to necrotic bone.
Osteosarcoma: extremely malignant bone forming tumor. Cells grow rapidly, are destructive and
painful, cancers that develop spread to bone.
Osteomalacia: same as rickets but in adults.
Rickets: lack of calcium and vitamin D. Occurs in children.
Osteoporosis: a metabolic disorder. Bone reabsorption faster than bone formation. Bones
become light, fragile, and porous. Shortened stature and muscle wasting.
19. Review disorders of the joints including: rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and
gout. Know causes and signs/symptoms for each.
Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune condition, genetically predisposed in individuals, bone
erosions, bone cysts, and fissures.
, Osteoarthritis: wear and tear that happens to our joints simply as we age. Loss of articular
cartilage. Causes grinding, bone spurs, joint pain, crepitus with movement, body enlargement.
Psoriatic Arthritis: immune, psoriasis of skin prone to develop this. Genetic factors, T
lymphocytes.
Gout: uric acid forms crystals that are trapped in the joints. Causes inflammation, 80% mostly in
the big toe.
20. Review which organisms/viruses contribute to the following conditions: pelvic inflammatory disease,
cervical cancer, UTIs, herpes, syphilis
Pelvic inflammatory disease: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, chlamydia trachomatis; alteration of
cervical uterus that is usually prevents bacterial agents from ascending into the uterus; pelvic
surgery, insertion of intrauterine device, infection during and after pregnancy; Manifestations
include abdominal tenderness, pelvic pain, cervical/ adnexa pain or tenderness on palpation,
fever, elevated WBC count, purulent vaginal discharge. Complications include infertility, ectopic
pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain.
Cervical cancer: detected by evaluating cervical cells (pap tests); Human papillomavirus (HPV)
certain kinds; multiple sexual partners, multiple pregnancies, herpesvirus type 2, other STIs.
Preinvasive- Asymptomatic, Early invasive- abnormal, persistent bleeding, pain and bleeding
after intercourse, can spread to vaginal wall, pelvis, bladder, etc
UTIs:
Syphilis: Sexually transmitted disease caused by bacteria treponema pallidum; primary- sore,
single chancre on genitalia. Secondary- disseminated rash. Tertiary- permanent cardiac and CNS
damage.
Herpes: HSV-1: common on the lips, face, and mouth; could sores- pain common, healing 10-14
days, persists in latent form. HSV- 2: responsible for most infections in genital areas. Zoster:
shingles
21. Review endocrine disorders of the pituitary gland including: gigantism, dwarfism, acromegaly, diabetes
insipidus, SIADH
Gigantism: excess in GH, occurs in childhood before the skeletal epiphyses close; accelerated
growth. If left untreated someone could grow >8 ft with increased cardiomegaly and heart
failure.
Dwarfism: decreased GH secretion, defective GH action; congenital, idiopathic, or related to
tumors, radiation, or trauma. Hypoglycemia, growth below the third percentile, dental eruption
delayed, thin hair, pool hair growth, greater fat mass, decreased muscle mass.
Acromegaly: occurs in adults after skeletal epiphyses occurs.
Diabetes insipidus: caused by a decreased amount or lack of ADH. Kidneys are unable to retain
water, which causes individual to produce increased amount of dilute urine and increased thirst.
Caused by head trauma that damages hypothalamus or posterior pituitary gland. Loss of water
can lead to dehydration; dizziness, disorientation, nausea, rapid heart rates, and headaches.
SIADH: Body produces too much ADH. Water intoxication, very little urine output (oliguria);
results in edema, weight gain, hyponatremia- can lead to cerebral edema- seizures, coma,
death, confusion.
22. What is parathyroid hormone (PTH)? Which electrolyte is primarily affected by PTH disorders?
Works to increase calcium levels in the bloodstream, causes calcium to be released from bones
by activating osteoclasts; Increase Ca2+ absorption in intestine and decrease it in the urine.
Actual Exam Q&A's | 100% Updated 2026.
Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet
Covers Material from Modules 1-10
Be sure to look over review sheets from Exam #1 and #2 – all previous information is fair game for the Final
exam
1. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during the “fight-or-flight” response?
Sympathetic- fight or flight/ parasympathetic- rest and digest/ When body is in fight or flight its
in survival mode. Directs nutrients and blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs
and skeletal system. Decreased saliva, urination, stomach.
2. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus: control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here, production of
messenger RNA- contains instructions to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells have
only one nucleus, but liver and skeletal systems have more. Red blood cells have no nucleus.
DNA comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus.
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, that contain their own DNA, cellular respiration,
production of ATP from glucose.
Ribosome: site of protein production
Lysosome: breaks down food particles or worn-out cell parts
Endoplasmic reticulum: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth-
ribosome are not attached/ rough- ribosomes are attached.
Peroxisome: contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products.
Golgi apparatus: sorts and package proteins.
3. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
Passive: transferring innate protection from one individual to another. Immune protection right
away but doesn’t last very long. EX: passing antibodies from mom to baby. Passes through
placenta or breast milk. Serotherapy- direct injection/ infusion of antibodies (humans or
animals). Giving plasma, snake venom.
Active: a protective state owing to the body’s immune response as a result of active infection or
immunizations. Body fighting off something or receiving a vaccine.
4. Review the various factors that can contribute to edema
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in
capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in
plasma proteins (such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due
to cancer or removal of lymph tissue)
5. Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic), Type II (Cytotoxic), Type III
(Immune complex), Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated). Know examples and mediating factors for each
type.
Type 1 (Anaphylactic): Occurs within 2-30 minutes of antigen exposure; IgE; Systemic or local;
Mild- hives, stuffy or runny nose. Severe- constriction of throat, swelling of lips; Antihistamines;
epinephrine, corticosteroids; Mediating factors- IgE, mast cells, basophils.
Type II (Cytotoxic): IgG or IgM. Transfusion reactions, hemolytic disease of a newborn- mother
has negative blood type and father has positive. EX: Graves disease. Mediating factors- IgM and
IgG
, Type III (Immune Complex): IgG antibodies form immune complexes. EX: Rheumatoid arthritis.
Mediating factors- antibodies binding to antigens that cause inflammation.
Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated): Takes time for the individual to develop signs and symptoms.
Mediating factors- Cytotoxic T cells.
6. Review the differences between benign and malignant tumors.
Benign- growth is localized, curable; grows slowly, little vascularity, rarely necrotic, cells that do
not invade other parts of the body, encapsulated- surrounded by connective tissue.
Malignant- ignores growth controlling signals, they grow uncontrollably, display anaplasia-
variation in cell size, meaning they look and act different from their original cell. Metastasis- set
up new tumors in other areas. Travel
7. Review signs and symptoms of peptic ulcer disease.
Caused by NSAIDs, stress, smoking and genetics. H Pylori plays a key role in promoting gastric
and duodenal ulcers. Clinical manifestations: epigastric burning pain that is usually relieved by
intake of food (especially dairy products) or antacids. Gastric ulcers: typically occurs on an
empty stomach but may present after a meal. Duodenal ulcers: occurs 2-3 hours after a meal
and is relieved by further food ingestion, life threatening complications such as GI bleeding may
occur without warning.
8. Review differences between functional and mechanical bowel obstructions, know examples for each
Mechanical: adhesions, hernia, tumors, impacted feces, volvulus, intussusception.
Functional: paralytic ileus, due to conditions that inhibit peristalsis, such as certain medications
(anticholinergics), opioids, low fiber diets, etc.
9. Review signs and symptoms of appendicitis.
Inflammation of the vermiform appendix, obstruction of the fecalith. Clinical manifestations:
periumbilical pain, RLQ pain “Mcburney’s point”, nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, RLQ
tenderness, systemic signs of inflammation.
10. Review signs and symptoms of liver disease. Review complications of liver disease
Due to hepatocellular failure ( jaundice, decreased clotting factors, hypoalbuminemia,
decreased vitamin D and K) and portal hypertension (GI congestion, development of esophageal
or gastric varices, hemorrhoids, splenomegaly, ascites).
11. What role does albumin play in the blood? What happens to albumin production with liver failure?
Protein produced by the liver that helps keep fluid in your blood stream, so it doesn’t leak to
other tissues.
12. What are the function of the kidneys? How do we assess for renal disorders?
Excretion- removal of organic waste products from body fluids, Elimination- discharge of waste
products from the body, Regulation- Regulating blood volume levels, ion concentrations, blood
PH, and nutrients. Assess with CVA tenderness.
13. What is polycystic kidney disease? What causes this condition?
Genetically transmitted renal disorder in fluid filled, may be localized to one area or affect both
kidneys; two types: autosomal recessive forms and autosomal dominant types: most common,
symptoms appear later in life.
14. Review the following terms: nephrons, hematuria, proteinuria, nephrolithiasis, pyelonephritis, cystitis
Nephrons: includes multiple sections responsible for filtering out stuff from the blood.
Hematuria: blood in the urine
Proteinuria: protein in the urine. Sign of kidney damage.
, Nephrolithiasis: renal calculi that causes obstruction. This is most common and usually
composed of calcium.
Pyelonephritis: infection of the kidney; most common cause is ascending infection from the
lower urinary tract (typically due to E. Coli). Clinical manifestations: CVA tenderness (classic sign)
accompanied by fever, chills, N/V, anorexia, which increases fever- induced dehydration. Most
effective preventative measure would be early removal of catheters.
Cystitis: inflammation of the bladder lining from infection, trauma, stones; common in women;
symptoms in children include fever, irritability, poor feeding, vomiting, diarrhea. In adults it is
delirium and new one-set incontinence.
15. Review signs and symptoms of acute kidney injury (AKI). Review causes of AKI including prerenal,
intrinsic, and postrenal. Know examples of each type of injury.
Disruptions in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balances; retention of nitrogenous waste
products; increased serum creatinine, decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Prerenal: disruption to renal perfusion, caused by conditions that diminish perfusion of the
kidney- hypotension, hypovolemia (low blood volume), heart failure, renal artery obstruction,
fever, vomiting, diarrhea, burns, NSAIDs, ace inhibitors, angiotensin II blockers.
Postrenal: disruption of renal flow distal to the kidney, caused by obstruction within the urinary
collecting system distal to the kidney; EX: stone in ureter, tumor, enlarged prostate; results in
elevated pressure in bowman’s capsule- impedes glomerular filtration. If prolonged it leads to
acute tubular necrosis (intrinsic) and can lead to irreversible kidney damage.
Intrinsic: Damage/ disruptions within the kidney blood vessels, tubules, and glomeruli. Due to
disfunction of the nephrons and the kidney itself; Damage to renal tubules resulting in acute
tubular necrosis (ATN). Causes include: Reduced blood supply within the kidney’s, Toxic injury-
certain medications, chemotherapy, amphetamines, contrast media, Renal Inflammation,
prolonged postrenal failure.
16. Review signs and symptoms of compartment syndrome? Remember the 5 P’s
Dangerous complication of soft tissue injury leading- results from swelling of injured tissue
within a restrictive fascia. Edema causes increased pressure within the compartment.
5 Ps- Pain out of proportion to the injury, paralysis, paresthesia (numbness and tingling), pallor,
and pulselessness.
17. What are electrolyte reservoirs? What electrolytes are found stored in bones?
18. Review diseases of the bone including: osteomyelitis, osteosarcoma, osteomalacia, rickets, and
osteoporosis
Osteomyelitis: infection in the bone that can be due to a bone fracture, burns, deep pressure
ulcers. Difficult to treat, penetrating wounds. If not treated it could lead to necrotic bone.
Osteosarcoma: extremely malignant bone forming tumor. Cells grow rapidly, are destructive and
painful, cancers that develop spread to bone.
Osteomalacia: same as rickets but in adults.
Rickets: lack of calcium and vitamin D. Occurs in children.
Osteoporosis: a metabolic disorder. Bone reabsorption faster than bone formation. Bones
become light, fragile, and porous. Shortened stature and muscle wasting.
19. Review disorders of the joints including: rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and
gout. Know causes and signs/symptoms for each.
Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune condition, genetically predisposed in individuals, bone
erosions, bone cysts, and fissures.
, Osteoarthritis: wear and tear that happens to our joints simply as we age. Loss of articular
cartilage. Causes grinding, bone spurs, joint pain, crepitus with movement, body enlargement.
Psoriatic Arthritis: immune, psoriasis of skin prone to develop this. Genetic factors, T
lymphocytes.
Gout: uric acid forms crystals that are trapped in the joints. Causes inflammation, 80% mostly in
the big toe.
20. Review which organisms/viruses contribute to the following conditions: pelvic inflammatory disease,
cervical cancer, UTIs, herpes, syphilis
Pelvic inflammatory disease: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, chlamydia trachomatis; alteration of
cervical uterus that is usually prevents bacterial agents from ascending into the uterus; pelvic
surgery, insertion of intrauterine device, infection during and after pregnancy; Manifestations
include abdominal tenderness, pelvic pain, cervical/ adnexa pain or tenderness on palpation,
fever, elevated WBC count, purulent vaginal discharge. Complications include infertility, ectopic
pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain.
Cervical cancer: detected by evaluating cervical cells (pap tests); Human papillomavirus (HPV)
certain kinds; multiple sexual partners, multiple pregnancies, herpesvirus type 2, other STIs.
Preinvasive- Asymptomatic, Early invasive- abnormal, persistent bleeding, pain and bleeding
after intercourse, can spread to vaginal wall, pelvis, bladder, etc
UTIs:
Syphilis: Sexually transmitted disease caused by bacteria treponema pallidum; primary- sore,
single chancre on genitalia. Secondary- disseminated rash. Tertiary- permanent cardiac and CNS
damage.
Herpes: HSV-1: common on the lips, face, and mouth; could sores- pain common, healing 10-14
days, persists in latent form. HSV- 2: responsible for most infections in genital areas. Zoster:
shingles
21. Review endocrine disorders of the pituitary gland including: gigantism, dwarfism, acromegaly, diabetes
insipidus, SIADH
Gigantism: excess in GH, occurs in childhood before the skeletal epiphyses close; accelerated
growth. If left untreated someone could grow >8 ft with increased cardiomegaly and heart
failure.
Dwarfism: decreased GH secretion, defective GH action; congenital, idiopathic, or related to
tumors, radiation, or trauma. Hypoglycemia, growth below the third percentile, dental eruption
delayed, thin hair, pool hair growth, greater fat mass, decreased muscle mass.
Acromegaly: occurs in adults after skeletal epiphyses occurs.
Diabetes insipidus: caused by a decreased amount or lack of ADH. Kidneys are unable to retain
water, which causes individual to produce increased amount of dilute urine and increased thirst.
Caused by head trauma that damages hypothalamus or posterior pituitary gland. Loss of water
can lead to dehydration; dizziness, disorientation, nausea, rapid heart rates, and headaches.
SIADH: Body produces too much ADH. Water intoxication, very little urine output (oliguria);
results in edema, weight gain, hyponatremia- can lead to cerebral edema- seizures, coma,
death, confusion.
22. What is parathyroid hormone (PTH)? Which electrolyte is primarily affected by PTH disorders?
Works to increase calcium levels in the bloodstream, causes calcium to be released from bones
by activating osteoclasts; Increase Ca2+ absorption in intestine and decrease it in the urine.
