Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet
Covers Material from Modules 1-10
Be sure to look over review sheets from Exam #1 and #2 – all previous information is fair game for the Final
exam
1. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during the “fight-or-flight” response?
Sympathetic- fight or flight/ parasympathetic- rest and digest/ When body is in fight or flight its
in survival mode. Directs nutrients and blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs
and skeletal system. Decreased saliva, urination, stomach.
2. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus: control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here, production of
messenger RNA- contains instructions to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells have
only one nucleus, but liver and skeletal systems have more. Red blood cells have no nucleus.
DNA comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus.
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, that contain their own DNA, cellular respiration,
production of ATP from glucose.
Ribosome: site of protein production
Lysosome: breaks down food particles or worn-out cell parts
Endoplasmic reticulum: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth-
ribosome are not attached/ rough- ribosomes are attached.
Peroxisome: contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products.
Golgi apparatus: sorts and package proteins.
3. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
Passive: transferring innate protection from one individual to another. Immune protection right
away but doesn’t last very long. EX: passing antibodies from mom to baby. Passes through
placenta or breast milk. Serotherapy- direct injection/ infusion of antibodies (humans or
animals). Giving plasma, snake venom.
Active: a protective state owing to the body’s immune response as a result of active infection or
immunizations. Body fighting off something or receiving a vaccine.
4. Review the various factors that can contribute to edema
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in
capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in
plasma proteins (such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due
to cancer or removal of lymph tissue)
5. Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic), Type II (Cytotoxic), Type III
(Immune complex), Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated). Know examples and mediating factors for each
type.
Type 1 (Anaphylactic): Occurs within 2-30 minutes of antigen exposure; IgE; Systemic or local;
Mild- hives, stuffy or runny nose. Severe- constriction of throat, swelling of lips; Antihistamines;
epinephrine, corticosteroids; Mediating factors- IgE, mast cells, basophils.
Type II (Cytotoxic): IgG or IgM. Transfusion reactions, hemolytic disease of a newborn- mother
has negative blood type and father has positive. EX: Graves disease. Mediating factors- IgM and
IgG
, Type III (Immune Complex): IgG antibodies form immune complexes. EX: Rheumatoid arthritis.
Mediating factors- antibodies binding to antigens that cause inflammation.
Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated): Takes time for the individual to develop signs and symptoms.
Mediating factors- Cytotoxic T cells.
6. Review the differences between benign and malignant tumors.
Benign- growth is localized, curable; grows slowly, little vascularity, rarely necrotic, cells that do
not invade other parts of the body, encapsulated- surrounded by connective tissue.
Malignant- ignores growth controlling signals, they grow uncontrollably, display anaplasia-
variation in cell size, meaning they look and act different from their original cell. Metastasis- set
up new tumors in other areas. Travel
7. Review signs and symptoms of peptic ulcer disease.
Caused by NSAIDs, stress, smoking and genetics. H Pylori plays a key role in promoting gastric
and duodenal ulcers. Clinical manifestations: epigastric burning pain that is usually relieved by
intake of food (especially dairy products) or antacids. Gastric ulcers: typically occurs on an
empty stomach but may present after a meal. Duodenal ulcers: occurs 2-3 hours after a meal
and is relieved by further food ingestion, life threatening complications such as GI bleeding may
occur without warning.
8. Review differences between functional and mechanical bowel obstructions, know examples for each
Mechanical: adhesions, hernia, tumors, impacted feces, volvulus, intussusception.
Functional: paralytic ileus, due to conditions that inhibit peristalsis, such as certain medications
(anticholinergics), opioids, low fiber diets, etc.
9. Review signs and symptoms of appendicitis.
Inflammation of the vermiform appendix, obstruction of the fecalith. Clinical manifestations:
periumbilical pain, RLQ pain “Mcburney’s point”, nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, RLQ
tenderness, systemic signs of inflammation.
10. Review signs and symptoms of liver disease. Review complications of liver disease
Due to hepatocellular failure ( jaundice, decreased clotting factors, hypoalbuminemia,
decreased vitamin D and K) and portal hypertension (GI congestion, development of esophageal
or gastric varices, hemorrhoids, splenomegaly, ascites).
11. What role does albumin play in the blood? What happens to albumin production with liver failure?
Protein produced by the liver that helps keep fluid in your blood stream, so it doesn’t leak to
other tissues.
12. What are the function of the kidneys? How do we assess for renal disorders?
Excretion- removal of organic waste products from body fluids, Elimination- discharge of waste
products from the body, Regulation- Regulating blood volume levels, ion concentrations, blood
PH, and nutrients. Assess with CVA tenderness.
13. What is polycystic kidney disease? What causes this condition?
Genetically transmitted renal disorder in fluid filled, may be localized to one area or affect both
kidneys; two types: autosomal recessive forms and autosomal dominant types: most common,
symptoms appear later in life.
14. Review the following terms: nephrons, hematuria, proteinuria, nephrolithiasis, pyelonephritis, cystitis
Nephrons: includes multiple sections responsible for filtering out stuff from the blood.
Hematuria: blood in the urine
Proteinuria: protein in the urine. Sign of kidney damage.
Covers Material from Modules 1-10
Be sure to look over review sheets from Exam #1 and #2 – all previous information is fair game for the Final
exam
1. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What
happens to the body during the “fight-or-flight” response?
Sympathetic- fight or flight/ parasympathetic- rest and digest/ When body is in fight or flight its
in survival mode. Directs nutrients and blood flow to important parts of the body like the lungs
and skeletal system. Decreased saliva, urination, stomach.
2. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome,
lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus
Nucleus: control center or “brain” of the cell, DNA and genes are stored here, production of
messenger RNA- contains instructions to build nearly all the body’s proteins; most cells have
only one nucleus, but liver and skeletal systems have more. Red blood cells have no nucleus.
DNA comes from white blood cells if not from nucleus.
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, that contain their own DNA, cellular respiration,
production of ATP from glucose.
Ribosome: site of protein production
Lysosome: breaks down food particles or worn-out cell parts
Endoplasmic reticulum: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Smooth-
ribosome are not attached/ rough- ribosomes are attached.
Peroxisome: contains enzymes (oxidase and catalase) to break down toxic waste products.
Golgi apparatus: sorts and package proteins.
3. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type.
Passive: transferring innate protection from one individual to another. Immune protection right
away but doesn’t last very long. EX: passing antibodies from mom to baby. Passes through
placenta or breast milk. Serotherapy- direct injection/ infusion of antibodies (humans or
animals). Giving plasma, snake venom.
Active: a protective state owing to the body’s immune response as a result of active infection or
immunizations. Body fighting off something or receiving a vaccine.
4. Review the various factors that can contribute to edema
Fluid that accumulates in the interstitial spaces- leading the tissue swelling/ Increases in
capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves), Decrease in
plasma proteins (such as albumin) liver produces albumin, blockage of lymphatic drainage (due
to cancer or removal of lymph tissue)
5. Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic), Type II (Cytotoxic), Type III
(Immune complex), Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated). Know examples and mediating factors for each
type.
Type 1 (Anaphylactic): Occurs within 2-30 minutes of antigen exposure; IgE; Systemic or local;
Mild- hives, stuffy or runny nose. Severe- constriction of throat, swelling of lips; Antihistamines;
epinephrine, corticosteroids; Mediating factors- IgE, mast cells, basophils.
Type II (Cytotoxic): IgG or IgM. Transfusion reactions, hemolytic disease of a newborn- mother
has negative blood type and father has positive. EX: Graves disease. Mediating factors- IgM and
IgG
, Type III (Immune Complex): IgG antibodies form immune complexes. EX: Rheumatoid arthritis.
Mediating factors- antibodies binding to antigens that cause inflammation.
Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated): Takes time for the individual to develop signs and symptoms.
Mediating factors- Cytotoxic T cells.
6. Review the differences between benign and malignant tumors.
Benign- growth is localized, curable; grows slowly, little vascularity, rarely necrotic, cells that do
not invade other parts of the body, encapsulated- surrounded by connective tissue.
Malignant- ignores growth controlling signals, they grow uncontrollably, display anaplasia-
variation in cell size, meaning they look and act different from their original cell. Metastasis- set
up new tumors in other areas. Travel
7. Review signs and symptoms of peptic ulcer disease.
Caused by NSAIDs, stress, smoking and genetics. H Pylori plays a key role in promoting gastric
and duodenal ulcers. Clinical manifestations: epigastric burning pain that is usually relieved by
intake of food (especially dairy products) or antacids. Gastric ulcers: typically occurs on an
empty stomach but may present after a meal. Duodenal ulcers: occurs 2-3 hours after a meal
and is relieved by further food ingestion, life threatening complications such as GI bleeding may
occur without warning.
8. Review differences between functional and mechanical bowel obstructions, know examples for each
Mechanical: adhesions, hernia, tumors, impacted feces, volvulus, intussusception.
Functional: paralytic ileus, due to conditions that inhibit peristalsis, such as certain medications
(anticholinergics), opioids, low fiber diets, etc.
9. Review signs and symptoms of appendicitis.
Inflammation of the vermiform appendix, obstruction of the fecalith. Clinical manifestations:
periumbilical pain, RLQ pain “Mcburney’s point”, nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, RLQ
tenderness, systemic signs of inflammation.
10. Review signs and symptoms of liver disease. Review complications of liver disease
Due to hepatocellular failure ( jaundice, decreased clotting factors, hypoalbuminemia,
decreased vitamin D and K) and portal hypertension (GI congestion, development of esophageal
or gastric varices, hemorrhoids, splenomegaly, ascites).
11. What role does albumin play in the blood? What happens to albumin production with liver failure?
Protein produced by the liver that helps keep fluid in your blood stream, so it doesn’t leak to
other tissues.
12. What are the function of the kidneys? How do we assess for renal disorders?
Excretion- removal of organic waste products from body fluids, Elimination- discharge of waste
products from the body, Regulation- Regulating blood volume levels, ion concentrations, blood
PH, and nutrients. Assess with CVA tenderness.
13. What is polycystic kidney disease? What causes this condition?
Genetically transmitted renal disorder in fluid filled, may be localized to one area or affect both
kidneys; two types: autosomal recessive forms and autosomal dominant types: most common,
symptoms appear later in life.
14. Review the following terms: nephrons, hematuria, proteinuria, nephrolithiasis, pyelonephritis, cystitis
Nephrons: includes multiple sections responsible for filtering out stuff from the blood.
Hematuria: blood in the urine
Proteinuria: protein in the urine. Sign of kidney damage.
