HOC1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC REASONING
H1: PSYCHOLOGY AS A WAY OF THINKING
Like other scientists, psychologists are empiricists. Being an empiricist means basing
one’s conclusions on systematic observations. To think like a psychologist, you must
think like a researcher, and taking a course in research methods is crucial to your
understanding of psychology.
PRODUCING VS. CONSUMING RESEARCH
Scared Straight program: young people
would be scared into good behavior by
hearing from current prisoners
This example illustrates why you should
always seek empirical evidence to test
the efficacy of proposed interventions. In
fact, if you investigate further, you’ll find
that the U.S. Department of Justice
officially
warns that such programs are ineffective
and can harm youth!
• Research producer – Research consumer
o Some of us will produce research, but most of us will consume it
o Producers create new knowledge
o Consumers apply existing knowledge – reading about research to apply it to
their work
o Psychologists take on both roles – doing research and learning from others
o Both value empiricism: answering psychological questions with direct, formal
observations—and to communicating with others about what they have
learned.
• Example to illustrate the importance of the research consumer role
o Griet Op de Beeck doesn’t have a degree in psychology but does provide
therapy. She gives internal family systems therapy
o Internal family systems (IFS) therapy for PTSD among survivors of multiple
childhood trauma: a pilot effectiveness study
- They invited people suffering from PTSD and measured the degree of PTSD,
then gave them therapy and then measured their degree of PTSD again ->
decrease in degree of PTSD
- Bad study: sample top small, false positives, no control group !
o Feeling the future: experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences
on cognition and affect
- In some studies people could predict the future but in most not, and he
only published the studies in which it succeeded
• Critical mindset is essential
• Not all published research is correct or robust
• Replication crisis in psychology (veel bewegingen zijn hieruit ontstaan)
1
,HOW SCIENTISTS WORK
• Science is based on empiricism
• Scientists test theories
• Scientists work on fundamental and applied problems
• Science is continuously evolving
• Scientists publish their findings in scientific journals
• Scientists communicate with the general public via journalists
EMPIRICISM
• Empirical method is based on data obtained through:
o Our senses (sight, hearing, touch)
o Instruments that assist our senses (thermometer, questionnaires, timer)
o Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used to collect empirical
evidence
- Kwantitatief= empirical observations into numbers
- Kwalitatief= empirical observations into rich descriptions
• Empiricists aim to do research in a systematic, rigorous, and replicable manner
Same method for everyone; thorough; make work independently verified by other
observers
• Empiricism is not based on own experiences, intuition, or authority figures
SCIENTISTS TEST THEORIES
Theory-Data cycle
• Theory: simple set of statements that describes
general principles about how variables relate to one
another
• Leads to specific research questions
• Specific hypothesis (prediction) about the answers.
It’s the specific outcome the resarcher will observe
in a study if the study is accurate; is stated in terms
of the study design (onderzoeksopzet)
• Ideally, hypotheses are preregistered; researchers
publicaly state their expected outcomes before
collecting data
• Data is a set of observations collected in the study
o Data matches hypothesis -> support theory
o If not, the theory needs to be revised
! There is a difference between exploratory (inductive) and confirmatory (deductive)
research!
- Exploratory (inductive) research: generate a theory
- Confirmatory (deductive) research: test a theory (theory-data cycle van
hierboven)
• Harlow (1958): Cupboard theory vs. Contact comfort theory
o Cupboard theory: infants attach to their mother because she provides food
2
, o Contact comfort theory: babies are attached to their mothers because of
affection (warmth, softness)
• Harlow’s experiment
o 2 artificial ‘mothers’ were created
- Wire mother with milk bottle (food, no comfort)
- Cloth mother with warmth and softness (comfort; no food)
o 3 possible outcomes (monkey divide time equally, more with
wire/cloth mother)
o Results: Little monkeys preffered the cloth mother
o This supported the contact comfort theory, not the cupboard theory
à Clear example of theory-data cycle: testing competing predictions and letting the
data decide
• ✨Characteristics of good theories
o Supported by data (results from a single study cannot prove a theory)
- Studies don’t prove theories !
- Data support a theory or are consistent with a theory
o Falsifiable
- A theory should lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support
the theory (theory can be disconfirmed!)
o Parsimonious (“Occam’s razor”)
- Multiple theories -> simplest theory is the best explanation
• Examples of non-falsifiable theories: (=theory that you can never disconfirm)
o Facilitated communication treatment believers
Some therapists use FC, believing it helps people with developmental disorders
express themselves. However, controlled studies show that the messages come
from the therapists, not the client (theorie werd gefalisifieerd). Supporters reject
this evidence; FC only works when not scrutinized (onderzocht), making it
unfalsifiable
• Theories are evaluated based on all available evidence
It is important to use multiple studies before forming conclusions about a theory
o A theory can never be “proven”, but it can be falsified
o Replication is crucial
- Scientists therefore evaluate their theories based on the weight of the
evidence—the collection of studies, including replications, of the same
theory.
3
, Extra vb.
SCIENTISTS FORM A COMMUNITY
Scientists are members of a community, and as such, they follow a set of social
norms—shared expectations about how they should act
Merton’s scientific norms:
• Universalism = anyone can conduct research, regardless of their background
o Scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the
researcher’s credentials or reputation
o The same standards apply to all scientists and all research
o Even a students can do science, you don’t need an advanced degree or
research position
• Communality = researchers form a community and share study results
o Scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the
community
o Scientists should transparently and freely share the results of their work with
other scientists and the public
• Disinterestedness = research should be motivated by the pursuit of knowledge, not
personal gain, for example becoming famous or rich
o Scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by
conviction, idealism, politics or profit
o Personal beliefs, income, or prestige should not influence a scientist’s
interpretation or reporting data
• Organized skepticism = researchers maintain a critical perspective on others’ work
o Scientists question everything, including their own ideas and widely accepted
theories
4
, o Scientists accept almost nothing at face value, they always ask to see the
evidence
FUNDAMENTAL VS. APPLIED RESEARCH
The empirical method can be used for both applied and basic research questions
• Basic research aims to expand general knowledge, not solve specific issues
o The knowledge generated by basis research may later be applied to real-world
problems
• Translational research uses insights from basic research to develop and test
applications in areas like healthcare, psychotherapy or other interventions
o bridge between basic and applied research
• Applied research addresses practical problems in real-world settings
o Is done with a practical problem in mind
o Researchers conduct their work in a local, real-world context
CONTINUOUSLY EVOLVING
• Theories are continuously tested, modified, and falsified
• Research triggers follow-up research
o Ex. impact of color on approach- and avoidance-motivation in context (Meier,
2012)
- First study: showed that colors can influence your motivation
Participants were given a book with red or a blue cover
- The group with the red cover performed worse: red is often linked to danger
and avoidance (eg. don’t go here), while blue is linked to calmness and
approach (eg. you can park here)
- The follow-up study: the effect of color depends on the situation
In a romantic context, red is linked to love and approaching motivation.
Participants were told they would either go on a date or have an intelligence
interview, and saw a picture of the person they would meet with a red or
blue
- Researchers measured how quickly participants walked into the room
Faster walking = approach motivation (motivation to
approach)
Slower walking = avoidance motivation (motivation to
stay away)
- Results
Date + red = faster (approach)
Intelligence interview + blue = faster (approach)
• Failure to replicate the Metha and Zhu (2009) color-priming effect on anagram
solution times
5
, PUBLISHING
• Manuscripts are submitted to scientific journals (eg. nature, science, psychological
Bulletin)
• Peer-review process
o Parties involved include editor, reviewers, authors
Journal editor sends paper to 3-4 experts (reviewers are anonymous)
o Reject, revise and resubmit, accept
Number of articles
that are published
is increasing
Predatory jourals.
Pay the journal a
fee to be
published ->
higher chances to
be published
• Number of submitted and published articles at nature between 1997 and 2017
o Only the green line tends to be accepted
o majority of articles are rejected
o Gevolg: researchers may reframe or adjust their results to make them appear
more interesting or significant
• Percentage of articles accepted at nature between 1997 and 2017
o It’s becoming harder and harder to publish research
Some journals
have lower
rejection rates
COMMUNICATION: JOURNALISM
Scientific journals
- Written by and for scientists and psychology students
- Use technical language and detailed methodology
- Rarely read by the general public
Journalism
- Journalists might misrepresent science when they
write for a popular audience
“Mozart effect”
From: “ Students who had listened to the Mozart
sonata scored significantly higher on the
6
H1: PSYCHOLOGY AS A WAY OF THINKING
Like other scientists, psychologists are empiricists. Being an empiricist means basing
one’s conclusions on systematic observations. To think like a psychologist, you must
think like a researcher, and taking a course in research methods is crucial to your
understanding of psychology.
PRODUCING VS. CONSUMING RESEARCH
Scared Straight program: young people
would be scared into good behavior by
hearing from current prisoners
This example illustrates why you should
always seek empirical evidence to test
the efficacy of proposed interventions. In
fact, if you investigate further, you’ll find
that the U.S. Department of Justice
officially
warns that such programs are ineffective
and can harm youth!
• Research producer – Research consumer
o Some of us will produce research, but most of us will consume it
o Producers create new knowledge
o Consumers apply existing knowledge – reading about research to apply it to
their work
o Psychologists take on both roles – doing research and learning from others
o Both value empiricism: answering psychological questions with direct, formal
observations—and to communicating with others about what they have
learned.
• Example to illustrate the importance of the research consumer role
o Griet Op de Beeck doesn’t have a degree in psychology but does provide
therapy. She gives internal family systems therapy
o Internal family systems (IFS) therapy for PTSD among survivors of multiple
childhood trauma: a pilot effectiveness study
- They invited people suffering from PTSD and measured the degree of PTSD,
then gave them therapy and then measured their degree of PTSD again ->
decrease in degree of PTSD
- Bad study: sample top small, false positives, no control group !
o Feeling the future: experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences
on cognition and affect
- In some studies people could predict the future but in most not, and he
only published the studies in which it succeeded
• Critical mindset is essential
• Not all published research is correct or robust
• Replication crisis in psychology (veel bewegingen zijn hieruit ontstaan)
1
,HOW SCIENTISTS WORK
• Science is based on empiricism
• Scientists test theories
• Scientists work on fundamental and applied problems
• Science is continuously evolving
• Scientists publish their findings in scientific journals
• Scientists communicate with the general public via journalists
EMPIRICISM
• Empirical method is based on data obtained through:
o Our senses (sight, hearing, touch)
o Instruments that assist our senses (thermometer, questionnaires, timer)
o Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used to collect empirical
evidence
- Kwantitatief= empirical observations into numbers
- Kwalitatief= empirical observations into rich descriptions
• Empiricists aim to do research in a systematic, rigorous, and replicable manner
Same method for everyone; thorough; make work independently verified by other
observers
• Empiricism is not based on own experiences, intuition, or authority figures
SCIENTISTS TEST THEORIES
Theory-Data cycle
• Theory: simple set of statements that describes
general principles about how variables relate to one
another
• Leads to specific research questions
• Specific hypothesis (prediction) about the answers.
It’s the specific outcome the resarcher will observe
in a study if the study is accurate; is stated in terms
of the study design (onderzoeksopzet)
• Ideally, hypotheses are preregistered; researchers
publicaly state their expected outcomes before
collecting data
• Data is a set of observations collected in the study
o Data matches hypothesis -> support theory
o If not, the theory needs to be revised
! There is a difference between exploratory (inductive) and confirmatory (deductive)
research!
- Exploratory (inductive) research: generate a theory
- Confirmatory (deductive) research: test a theory (theory-data cycle van
hierboven)
• Harlow (1958): Cupboard theory vs. Contact comfort theory
o Cupboard theory: infants attach to their mother because she provides food
2
, o Contact comfort theory: babies are attached to their mothers because of
affection (warmth, softness)
• Harlow’s experiment
o 2 artificial ‘mothers’ were created
- Wire mother with milk bottle (food, no comfort)
- Cloth mother with warmth and softness (comfort; no food)
o 3 possible outcomes (monkey divide time equally, more with
wire/cloth mother)
o Results: Little monkeys preffered the cloth mother
o This supported the contact comfort theory, not the cupboard theory
à Clear example of theory-data cycle: testing competing predictions and letting the
data decide
• ✨Characteristics of good theories
o Supported by data (results from a single study cannot prove a theory)
- Studies don’t prove theories !
- Data support a theory or are consistent with a theory
o Falsifiable
- A theory should lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support
the theory (theory can be disconfirmed!)
o Parsimonious (“Occam’s razor”)
- Multiple theories -> simplest theory is the best explanation
• Examples of non-falsifiable theories: (=theory that you can never disconfirm)
o Facilitated communication treatment believers
Some therapists use FC, believing it helps people with developmental disorders
express themselves. However, controlled studies show that the messages come
from the therapists, not the client (theorie werd gefalisifieerd). Supporters reject
this evidence; FC only works when not scrutinized (onderzocht), making it
unfalsifiable
• Theories are evaluated based on all available evidence
It is important to use multiple studies before forming conclusions about a theory
o A theory can never be “proven”, but it can be falsified
o Replication is crucial
- Scientists therefore evaluate their theories based on the weight of the
evidence—the collection of studies, including replications, of the same
theory.
3
, Extra vb.
SCIENTISTS FORM A COMMUNITY
Scientists are members of a community, and as such, they follow a set of social
norms—shared expectations about how they should act
Merton’s scientific norms:
• Universalism = anyone can conduct research, regardless of their background
o Scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the
researcher’s credentials or reputation
o The same standards apply to all scientists and all research
o Even a students can do science, you don’t need an advanced degree or
research position
• Communality = researchers form a community and share study results
o Scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the
community
o Scientists should transparently and freely share the results of their work with
other scientists and the public
• Disinterestedness = research should be motivated by the pursuit of knowledge, not
personal gain, for example becoming famous or rich
o Scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by
conviction, idealism, politics or profit
o Personal beliefs, income, or prestige should not influence a scientist’s
interpretation or reporting data
• Organized skepticism = researchers maintain a critical perspective on others’ work
o Scientists question everything, including their own ideas and widely accepted
theories
4
, o Scientists accept almost nothing at face value, they always ask to see the
evidence
FUNDAMENTAL VS. APPLIED RESEARCH
The empirical method can be used for both applied and basic research questions
• Basic research aims to expand general knowledge, not solve specific issues
o The knowledge generated by basis research may later be applied to real-world
problems
• Translational research uses insights from basic research to develop and test
applications in areas like healthcare, psychotherapy or other interventions
o bridge between basic and applied research
• Applied research addresses practical problems in real-world settings
o Is done with a practical problem in mind
o Researchers conduct their work in a local, real-world context
CONTINUOUSLY EVOLVING
• Theories are continuously tested, modified, and falsified
• Research triggers follow-up research
o Ex. impact of color on approach- and avoidance-motivation in context (Meier,
2012)
- First study: showed that colors can influence your motivation
Participants were given a book with red or a blue cover
- The group with the red cover performed worse: red is often linked to danger
and avoidance (eg. don’t go here), while blue is linked to calmness and
approach (eg. you can park here)
- The follow-up study: the effect of color depends on the situation
In a romantic context, red is linked to love and approaching motivation.
Participants were told they would either go on a date or have an intelligence
interview, and saw a picture of the person they would meet with a red or
blue
- Researchers measured how quickly participants walked into the room
Faster walking = approach motivation (motivation to
approach)
Slower walking = avoidance motivation (motivation to
stay away)
- Results
Date + red = faster (approach)
Intelligence interview + blue = faster (approach)
• Failure to replicate the Metha and Zhu (2009) color-priming effect on anagram
solution times
5
, PUBLISHING
• Manuscripts are submitted to scientific journals (eg. nature, science, psychological
Bulletin)
• Peer-review process
o Parties involved include editor, reviewers, authors
Journal editor sends paper to 3-4 experts (reviewers are anonymous)
o Reject, revise and resubmit, accept
Number of articles
that are published
is increasing
Predatory jourals.
Pay the journal a
fee to be
published ->
higher chances to
be published
• Number of submitted and published articles at nature between 1997 and 2017
o Only the green line tends to be accepted
o majority of articles are rejected
o Gevolg: researchers may reframe or adjust their results to make them appear
more interesting or significant
• Percentage of articles accepted at nature between 1997 and 2017
o It’s becoming harder and harder to publish research
Some journals
have lower
rejection rates
COMMUNICATION: JOURNALISM
Scientific journals
- Written by and for scientists and psychology students
- Use technical language and detailed methodology
- Rarely read by the general public
Journalism
- Journalists might misrepresent science when they
write for a popular audience
“Mozart effect”
From: “ Students who had listened to the Mozart
sonata scored significantly higher on the
6
