NUR 376
Week 2 Module 2
Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid/Bases Outline
Applied Pathophysiology - Concordia St. Paul
Pass the Exam with Confidence
, lOMoARcPSD|51648332
NUR 376 Applied Pathophysiology
Week 2 Module 2: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid/Bases
Outline by Rhaeven Ortiz
Learning Objectives
● Describe basic cellular adaptations and injury.
o Ch. 2
o Understanding will be beneficial for most chapters to understand issues like cardiac, cancer.
o Adaptations on pages 9-12 (hypertrophy, atrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia,
neoplasia). Examples of each.
▪ Atrophy is a cellular adaptation in which cells revert to a smaller size in response to
changes in
metabolic requirements or their environment. Atrophy occurs when a cell’s
environment cannot support its metabolic requirements. The cell’s smaller size allows
for less metabolic demand and more efficient functioning that is compatible with
survival.
‣ EX: shrinking of skeletal muscle cells in an individual with upper
extremity
paralysis…Gradually, the size of skeletal muscle cells decreases and they undergo
diminished metabolic activity.
▪ Hypertrophy is an increase in individual cell size that results in an enlargement of
functioning tissue
mass. In hypertrophy, each individual cell becomes larger. Hypertrophy increases the
cell’s functional components, which leads to greater metabolic demand and energy
needs.
‣ In physiological hypertrophy, the enlarged muscle is adequately perfused and
supplied with
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blood flow, oxygen, and nutrients because of angiogenesis. In well-trained
athletes, the heart physiologically hypertrophies because of the enlargement of
each individual myocardial cell. There is a proportional increase in myocardial
cell size and enhancement of coronary blood supply of the myocardial cells.
Therefore, the enlarged heart in an athlete is supplied with abundant coronary
artery blood flow, which delivers large amounts of oxygen and nutrients
‣ Pathological
occurs when hypertrophy
there is an increase in cellular size without an increase
in the supportive structures necessary for the enlarged cell’s increased metabolic
needs. Pathological hypertrophy of cells can occur in disease processes or may
be a compensatory maladaptation to changed environmental conditions.
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2
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Clinical Concept: As a result of hypertension, the left ventricle undergoes pathological hypertrophy. During
cardiovascular physical assessment, left chest palpation locates the point of maximal impulse (PMI). The
PMI’s location correlates with the location of the heart’s apex, which is usually located just under the left
nipple. However, with left ventricular hypertrophy, the PMI is displaced to the left.
▪ Hyperplasia is the increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ. It occurs only in
tissues with cells that are capable of mitotic division, such as the epithelium and
glandular tissue. Hyperplasia is
stimulated by hormonal or compensatory cellular mechanisms. Hyperplasia can also
occur as a
maladaptive mechanism when overcompensation causes the cell mass necessary for
regeneration to be exceeded. Excessive numbers of cells in a specific tissue or organ
can have detrimental effects.
‣ An example of hormonal stimulation of hyperplasia occurs in pregnancy, when
estrogen stimulation results in mitotic division of breast gland cells.
‣ It is believed that human organs contain limited populations of self-renewing
cells, called
stem cells. Stem cell research is demonstrating the regenerative power of stable
cells and has the potential to change previously held theory (see the section
“Regenerative Medicine Using Stem Cells”).
Clinical Concept: Hyperplasia caused by hormonal stimulation occurs in older adult males. As males age,
prostate gland cells increase in number because of testosterone stimulation. As a result, a condition
REV -5/24
3
Downloaded by Benjamin Luca ()
Week 2 Module 2
Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid/Bases Outline
Applied Pathophysiology - Concordia St. Paul
Pass the Exam with Confidence
, lOMoARcPSD|51648332
NUR 376 Applied Pathophysiology
Week 2 Module 2: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid/Bases
Outline by Rhaeven Ortiz
Learning Objectives
● Describe basic cellular adaptations and injury.
o Ch. 2
o Understanding will be beneficial for most chapters to understand issues like cardiac, cancer.
o Adaptations on pages 9-12 (hypertrophy, atrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia,
neoplasia). Examples of each.
▪ Atrophy is a cellular adaptation in which cells revert to a smaller size in response to
changes in
metabolic requirements or their environment. Atrophy occurs when a cell’s
environment cannot support its metabolic requirements. The cell’s smaller size allows
for less metabolic demand and more efficient functioning that is compatible with
survival.
‣ EX: shrinking of skeletal muscle cells in an individual with upper
extremity
paralysis…Gradually, the size of skeletal muscle cells decreases and they undergo
diminished metabolic activity.
▪ Hypertrophy is an increase in individual cell size that results in an enlargement of
functioning tissue
mass. In hypertrophy, each individual cell becomes larger. Hypertrophy increases the
cell’s functional components, which leads to greater metabolic demand and energy
needs.
‣ In physiological hypertrophy, the enlarged muscle is adequately perfused and
supplied with
REV -5/24
1
Downloaded by Benjamin Luca ()
, lOMoARcPSD|51648332
blood flow, oxygen, and nutrients because of angiogenesis. In well-trained
athletes, the heart physiologically hypertrophies because of the enlargement of
each individual myocardial cell. There is a proportional increase in myocardial
cell size and enhancement of coronary blood supply of the myocardial cells.
Therefore, the enlarged heart in an athlete is supplied with abundant coronary
artery blood flow, which delivers large amounts of oxygen and nutrients
‣ Pathological
occurs when hypertrophy
there is an increase in cellular size without an increase
in the supportive structures necessary for the enlarged cell’s increased metabolic
needs. Pathological hypertrophy of cells can occur in disease processes or may
be a compensatory maladaptation to changed environmental conditions.
REV -5/24
2
Downloaded by Benjamin Luca ()
, lOMoARcPSD|51648332
Clinical Concept: As a result of hypertension, the left ventricle undergoes pathological hypertrophy. During
cardiovascular physical assessment, left chest palpation locates the point of maximal impulse (PMI). The
PMI’s location correlates with the location of the heart’s apex, which is usually located just under the left
nipple. However, with left ventricular hypertrophy, the PMI is displaced to the left.
▪ Hyperplasia is the increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ. It occurs only in
tissues with cells that are capable of mitotic division, such as the epithelium and
glandular tissue. Hyperplasia is
stimulated by hormonal or compensatory cellular mechanisms. Hyperplasia can also
occur as a
maladaptive mechanism when overcompensation causes the cell mass necessary for
regeneration to be exceeded. Excessive numbers of cells in a specific tissue or organ
can have detrimental effects.
‣ An example of hormonal stimulation of hyperplasia occurs in pregnancy, when
estrogen stimulation results in mitotic division of breast gland cells.
‣ It is believed that human organs contain limited populations of self-renewing
cells, called
stem cells. Stem cell research is demonstrating the regenerative power of stable
cells and has the potential to change previously held theory (see the section
“Regenerative Medicine Using Stem Cells”).
Clinical Concept: Hyperplasia caused by hormonal stimulation occurs in older adult males. As males age,
prostate gland cells increase in number because of testosterone stimulation. As a result, a condition
REV -5/24
3
Downloaded by Benjamin Luca ()
