NSG 3280 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY VERIFIED EXAM QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS - LATEST VERSION 2026/2027
1. What is pathophysiology? ANSWER The study of the functional changes in
cells, tissues, and organs that result from disease or injury.
2. Define etiology. ANSWER The study of the causes or reasons for disease.
3. What is idiopathic disease? ANSWER A disease with an unknown cause.
4. Define iatrogenic. ANSWER A condition caused by medical treatment or
intervention.
5. What is a risk factor? ANSWER A factor that, when present, increases the
likelihood of developing a disease.
6. Define pathogenesis. ANSWER The sequence of cellular and tissue events
that occur from the time of initial contact with an etiologic agent until the
ultimate expression of disease.
7. What are clinical manifestations? ANSWER The signs and symptoms of
disease.
8. What is the difference between signs and symptoms? ANSWER Signs are
objective and observable; symptoms are subjective and reported by the
patient.
9. Define homeostasis. ANSWER The dynamic steady state of the internal
environment maintained by regulatory mechanisms.
10. What is allostasis? ANSWER The process of achieving stability through
physiological or behavioral change.
11. What are the stages of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome? ANSWER
Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
,12. What hormones are released during the alarm stage of GAS? ANSWER
Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) and cortisol.
13. What occurs during the resistance stage of GAS? ANSWER The body
adapts to the stressor; cortisol levels remain elevated but the body attempts to
maintain homeostasis.
14. What happens during the exhaustion stage of GAS? ANSWER Resources
are depleted, leading to organ dysfunction, disease, or death.
15. Define cellular adaptation. ANSWER Reversible changes in cell size,
number, or type in response to stress.
16. What is hypertrophy? ANSWER Increase in cell size leading to increased
organ size.
17. What is hyperplasia? ANSWER Increase in the number of cells in a tissue
or organ.
18. What is atrophy? ANSWER Decrease in cell size leading to decreased
organ size.
19. What is metaplasia? ANSWER Reversible change from one differentiated
cell type to another.
20. What is dysplasia? ANSWER Abnormal development or growth of cells;
may be a precursor to cancer.
21. What is apoptosis? ANSWER Programmed cell death.
22. What is necrosis? ANSWER Unregulated cell death due to injury or
disease.
23. What are the types of necrosis? ANSWER Coagulative, liquefactive,
caseous, fat, and gangrenous.
24. What is coagulative necrosis? ANSWER Preservation of tissue
architecture; commonly seen in ischemic injury to solid organs (e.g.,
myocardial infarction).
25. What is liquefactive necrosis? ANSWER Tissue turns into liquid viscous
mass; seen in brain infarcts and abscesses.
26. What is caseous necrosis? ANSWER Cheese-like appearance; characteristic
of tuberculosis.
, 27. What is gangrene? ANSWER Tissue necrosis due to interrupted blood
supply; types include dry, wet, and gas gangrene.
28. What is inflammation? ANSWER A protective vascular and cellular
response to injury, infection, or irritation.
29. What are the cardinal signs of inflammation? ANSWER Heat, redness,
swelling, pain, and loss of function.
30. What are the stages of the inflammatory response? ANSWER Vascular
response, cellular response, and resolution/healing.
UNIT 2: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance (Questions 31–60)
31. What is the largest fluid compartment in the body? ANSWER Intracellular
fluid (ICF).
32. What percentage of body weight is water? ANSWER Approximately 60%
in adults; varies by age, sex, and body composition.
33. What is the normal serum sodium level? ANSWER 135–145 mEq/L.
34. What is the normal serum potassium level? ANSWER 3.5–5.0 mEq/L.
35. What is the normal serum calcium level? ANSWER 8.5–10.5 mg/dL.
36. What is the normal serum magnesium level? ANSWER 1.5–2.5 mEq/L.
37. What is the normal serum chloride level? ANSWER 98–106 mEq/L.
38. What is the normal serum bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) level? ANSWER 22–26
mEq/L.
39. What is the normal arterial blood pH? ANSWER 7.35–7.45.
40. What is the normal PaCO₂ range? ANSWER 35–45 mmHg.
41. What is the normal PaO₂ range? ANSWER 80–100 mmHg.
42. What causes hyponatremia? ANSWER Excess water relative to sodium;
may result from SIADH, heart failure, or excessive water intake.
43. What are the clinical manifestations of hyponatremia? ANSWER
Headache, confusion, seizures, nausea, and muscle cramps.
ANSWERS - LATEST VERSION 2026/2027
1. What is pathophysiology? ANSWER The study of the functional changes in
cells, tissues, and organs that result from disease or injury.
2. Define etiology. ANSWER The study of the causes or reasons for disease.
3. What is idiopathic disease? ANSWER A disease with an unknown cause.
4. Define iatrogenic. ANSWER A condition caused by medical treatment or
intervention.
5. What is a risk factor? ANSWER A factor that, when present, increases the
likelihood of developing a disease.
6. Define pathogenesis. ANSWER The sequence of cellular and tissue events
that occur from the time of initial contact with an etiologic agent until the
ultimate expression of disease.
7. What are clinical manifestations? ANSWER The signs and symptoms of
disease.
8. What is the difference between signs and symptoms? ANSWER Signs are
objective and observable; symptoms are subjective and reported by the
patient.
9. Define homeostasis. ANSWER The dynamic steady state of the internal
environment maintained by regulatory mechanisms.
10. What is allostasis? ANSWER The process of achieving stability through
physiological or behavioral change.
11. What are the stages of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome? ANSWER
Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
,12. What hormones are released during the alarm stage of GAS? ANSWER
Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) and cortisol.
13. What occurs during the resistance stage of GAS? ANSWER The body
adapts to the stressor; cortisol levels remain elevated but the body attempts to
maintain homeostasis.
14. What happens during the exhaustion stage of GAS? ANSWER Resources
are depleted, leading to organ dysfunction, disease, or death.
15. Define cellular adaptation. ANSWER Reversible changes in cell size,
number, or type in response to stress.
16. What is hypertrophy? ANSWER Increase in cell size leading to increased
organ size.
17. What is hyperplasia? ANSWER Increase in the number of cells in a tissue
or organ.
18. What is atrophy? ANSWER Decrease in cell size leading to decreased
organ size.
19. What is metaplasia? ANSWER Reversible change from one differentiated
cell type to another.
20. What is dysplasia? ANSWER Abnormal development or growth of cells;
may be a precursor to cancer.
21. What is apoptosis? ANSWER Programmed cell death.
22. What is necrosis? ANSWER Unregulated cell death due to injury or
disease.
23. What are the types of necrosis? ANSWER Coagulative, liquefactive,
caseous, fat, and gangrenous.
24. What is coagulative necrosis? ANSWER Preservation of tissue
architecture; commonly seen in ischemic injury to solid organs (e.g.,
myocardial infarction).
25. What is liquefactive necrosis? ANSWER Tissue turns into liquid viscous
mass; seen in brain infarcts and abscesses.
26. What is caseous necrosis? ANSWER Cheese-like appearance; characteristic
of tuberculosis.
, 27. What is gangrene? ANSWER Tissue necrosis due to interrupted blood
supply; types include dry, wet, and gas gangrene.
28. What is inflammation? ANSWER A protective vascular and cellular
response to injury, infection, or irritation.
29. What are the cardinal signs of inflammation? ANSWER Heat, redness,
swelling, pain, and loss of function.
30. What are the stages of the inflammatory response? ANSWER Vascular
response, cellular response, and resolution/healing.
UNIT 2: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance (Questions 31–60)
31. What is the largest fluid compartment in the body? ANSWER Intracellular
fluid (ICF).
32. What percentage of body weight is water? ANSWER Approximately 60%
in adults; varies by age, sex, and body composition.
33. What is the normal serum sodium level? ANSWER 135–145 mEq/L.
34. What is the normal serum potassium level? ANSWER 3.5–5.0 mEq/L.
35. What is the normal serum calcium level? ANSWER 8.5–10.5 mg/dL.
36. What is the normal serum magnesium level? ANSWER 1.5–2.5 mEq/L.
37. What is the normal serum chloride level? ANSWER 98–106 mEq/L.
38. What is the normal serum bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) level? ANSWER 22–26
mEq/L.
39. What is the normal arterial blood pH? ANSWER 7.35–7.45.
40. What is the normal PaCO₂ range? ANSWER 35–45 mmHg.
41. What is the normal PaO₂ range? ANSWER 80–100 mmHg.
42. What causes hyponatremia? ANSWER Excess water relative to sodium;
may result from SIADH, heart failure, or excessive water intake.
43. What are the clinical manifestations of hyponatremia? ANSWER
Headache, confusion, seizures, nausea, and muscle cramps.
