CHAPTER 11: PERSONALITY
UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a complex hypothetical construct that has been defined in a variety of ways.
11.1.1 DEFINING PERSONALITY: CONSISTENCY AND DISTINCTIVENESS
Although no one is entirely consistent in behaviour, this quality of consistency across situations lies at the
core of the concept of personality. Distinctiveness is also central to the concept of personality.
Personality helps explain why people respond differently in similar situations. While individuals may
recognize certain traits in others that they share themselves, each person possesses a unique
combination of personality traits that sets them apart.
In summary, the concept of personality is used to explain the stability in a person's behaviour over time
and across situations and the behavioural differences among people reacting to the same situation.
Personality: refers to an individual's unique set of consistent behavioural traits.
11.1.2 PERSONALITY TRAITS: DISPOSITIONS AND DIMENSIONS
Personality trait: is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations. →
Adjectives such as honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, suspicious and friendly describe dispositions
that represent personality traits.
Most approaches of personality assume that some traits are more basic than others. According to this
notion, a small number of fundamental traits determine other, more superficial traits
In factor analysis: correlations among many variables are analysed to identify closely related clusters of
variables. → (If the measurements of a number of variables correlate highly with one another, the
assumption is that a single factor is influencing all of them.)
11.1.3 THE FIVE - FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY TRAITS
Factor Characteristic
Extraversion Outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive and gregarious. They
pursue social contact, intimacy and interdependence.
Neuroticism Anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure and vulnerable. They tend to
be more impulsive and emotionally unstable.
Openness to experience Curiosity, flexibility, imagination, intellectual pursuits and is interested
in new ideas. They tend to be tolerant of ambiguity.
Agreeableness Warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative, modest and
straightforward. Correlated with empathy and helping behaviour.
Conscientiousness Diligent, well - organised, punctual and dependable. They have self-
discipline and the ability to regulate oneself effectively.
There are some modest gender differences in average scores on the Big Five traits. The most reliable
differences are that females tend to score slightly higher than males on agreeableness and on
40
,neuroticism. → These gender influences probably reflect the operation of both genetic and environmental
influences.
Reliable correlations have been found between the Big Five traits and quite a variety of personal
tendencies and important life outcomes such as:
→ Higher marks in university are associated with higher conscientiousness.
→ Creative achievement in the arts is associated with openness to experience.
→ Career success in terms of how well the individual's traits fit with the demands of a specific job.
→ Likelihood of divorce is associated with changes based on agreeableness and conscientiousness.
→ Health and mortality is associated with neuroticism.
UNIT 2: PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Psychodynamic theories include all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that
focus on unconscious mental forces.
11.2.1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud was a doctor specialising in neurology when he began his medical practice in Vienna
toward the end of the 19th century. Like other neurologists in his era, he often treated people troubled by
nervous problems, such as irrational fears, obsessions and anxieties.
The psychoanalytic theory tries to explain personality by focusing on the influence of early childhood
experiences, unconscious conflicts and sexual urges.
Although Freud’s theory gradually gained prominence, most of Freud’s contemporaries were
uncomfortable with his theory, for at least three reasons:
1.In arguing that people’s behavior is governed by unconscious factors that they are unaware of, Freud
suggested that individuals are not masters of their own minds.
2.In claiming that adult personalities are shaped by childhood experiences and other factors beyond one’s
control, he suggested that people are not in charge of their own destinies.
3.By emphasizing the importance of how people cope with their sexual urges, he offended those who
held the conservative, Victorian values of his time.
Structure of personality:
Freud divided personality structure into three components: the id, the ego and the superego. He saw a
person’s behaviour as the outcome of interactions among these three components.
The id: is the primitive, instinctive component of personality, and operates according to the pleasure
principle. → Freud referred to the id as the reservoir of psychic energy as it includes the raw biological
urges that energise human behaviour.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of its urges.
The id engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive, illogical, irrational and fantasy orientated.
The ego: is the decision making component of personality, and operates according to the reality principle.
The ego mediates between the id, with its forceful desires for immediate satisfaction, and the external
social world, with its expectations and norms regarding suitable behaviour.
41
, The ego considers social realities - society’s norms, etiquette, rules and customs - in deciding how to
behave. The ego is guided by the reality principle, which tries to delay gratification of the id’s urges until
appropriate outlets and situations can be found.
In the long run, the ego wants to maximize gratification, just as the id does. However, the ego engages in
secondary thinking, which is relatively rational, realistic and orientated toward problem solving. Thus, the
ego attempts to avoid negative consequences from society and its representatives by behaving ‘properly’.
The superego: is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what
represents right and wrong. → Emerges in early childhood.
The superego can become irrationally demanding in striving for moral perfection, and they become
plagued by excessive feelings of guilt.
Levels of awareness:
Level 1: The conscious consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.
For example: your conscious may include the train of thought in this text and a dim awareness in the back
of your mind that your eyes are getting tired and you’re beginning to get hungry.
Level 2: The preconscious contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be
retrieved. For example: what you had for dinner last night.
Level 3: The unconscious contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of
conscious awareness, but that still have a great influence on behaviour.
For example: forgotten trauma from your childhood.
Freud’s conception of the mind is often compared to an iceberg
that has most of its mass hidden beneath the water’s surface. He
believed that the unconscious is much larger than the conscious
or preconscious. He also proposed that the ego and superego
operate at all three levels of awareness. In contrast, the id is
entirely unconscious, expressing its urges at a conscious level
through the ego.
Conflict and the Tyranny of sex and aggression:
He saw internal battles between the id, ego and superego as routine. This is because the id wants to
gratify its urges immediately, but when the norms of civilised society frequently dictate otherwise.
Freud believed that behaviour is the outcome of an ongoing series of internal conflicts. He asserted that
conflicts centring on sexual and aggressive impulses are especially likely to have far reaching
consequences.
He emphasises sex and aggression because of two main reasons that dominated his thinking:
1.He thought that sex and aggression are subject to more complex and ambiguous social controls than
other basic motives. Thus people often get inconsistent messages about what’s appropriate.
42
UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a complex hypothetical construct that has been defined in a variety of ways.
11.1.1 DEFINING PERSONALITY: CONSISTENCY AND DISTINCTIVENESS
Although no one is entirely consistent in behaviour, this quality of consistency across situations lies at the
core of the concept of personality. Distinctiveness is also central to the concept of personality.
Personality helps explain why people respond differently in similar situations. While individuals may
recognize certain traits in others that they share themselves, each person possesses a unique
combination of personality traits that sets them apart.
In summary, the concept of personality is used to explain the stability in a person's behaviour over time
and across situations and the behavioural differences among people reacting to the same situation.
Personality: refers to an individual's unique set of consistent behavioural traits.
11.1.2 PERSONALITY TRAITS: DISPOSITIONS AND DIMENSIONS
Personality trait: is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations. →
Adjectives such as honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, suspicious and friendly describe dispositions
that represent personality traits.
Most approaches of personality assume that some traits are more basic than others. According to this
notion, a small number of fundamental traits determine other, more superficial traits
In factor analysis: correlations among many variables are analysed to identify closely related clusters of
variables. → (If the measurements of a number of variables correlate highly with one another, the
assumption is that a single factor is influencing all of them.)
11.1.3 THE FIVE - FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY TRAITS
Factor Characteristic
Extraversion Outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive and gregarious. They
pursue social contact, intimacy and interdependence.
Neuroticism Anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure and vulnerable. They tend to
be more impulsive and emotionally unstable.
Openness to experience Curiosity, flexibility, imagination, intellectual pursuits and is interested
in new ideas. They tend to be tolerant of ambiguity.
Agreeableness Warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative, modest and
straightforward. Correlated with empathy and helping behaviour.
Conscientiousness Diligent, well - organised, punctual and dependable. They have self-
discipline and the ability to regulate oneself effectively.
There are some modest gender differences in average scores on the Big Five traits. The most reliable
differences are that females tend to score slightly higher than males on agreeableness and on
40
,neuroticism. → These gender influences probably reflect the operation of both genetic and environmental
influences.
Reliable correlations have been found between the Big Five traits and quite a variety of personal
tendencies and important life outcomes such as:
→ Higher marks in university are associated with higher conscientiousness.
→ Creative achievement in the arts is associated with openness to experience.
→ Career success in terms of how well the individual's traits fit with the demands of a specific job.
→ Likelihood of divorce is associated with changes based on agreeableness and conscientiousness.
→ Health and mortality is associated with neuroticism.
UNIT 2: PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES
Psychodynamic theories include all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that
focus on unconscious mental forces.
11.2.1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud was a doctor specialising in neurology when he began his medical practice in Vienna
toward the end of the 19th century. Like other neurologists in his era, he often treated people troubled by
nervous problems, such as irrational fears, obsessions and anxieties.
The psychoanalytic theory tries to explain personality by focusing on the influence of early childhood
experiences, unconscious conflicts and sexual urges.
Although Freud’s theory gradually gained prominence, most of Freud’s contemporaries were
uncomfortable with his theory, for at least three reasons:
1.In arguing that people’s behavior is governed by unconscious factors that they are unaware of, Freud
suggested that individuals are not masters of their own minds.
2.In claiming that adult personalities are shaped by childhood experiences and other factors beyond one’s
control, he suggested that people are not in charge of their own destinies.
3.By emphasizing the importance of how people cope with their sexual urges, he offended those who
held the conservative, Victorian values of his time.
Structure of personality:
Freud divided personality structure into three components: the id, the ego and the superego. He saw a
person’s behaviour as the outcome of interactions among these three components.
The id: is the primitive, instinctive component of personality, and operates according to the pleasure
principle. → Freud referred to the id as the reservoir of psychic energy as it includes the raw biological
urges that energise human behaviour.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of its urges.
The id engages in primary process thinking, which is primitive, illogical, irrational and fantasy orientated.
The ego: is the decision making component of personality, and operates according to the reality principle.
The ego mediates between the id, with its forceful desires for immediate satisfaction, and the external
social world, with its expectations and norms regarding suitable behaviour.
41
, The ego considers social realities - society’s norms, etiquette, rules and customs - in deciding how to
behave. The ego is guided by the reality principle, which tries to delay gratification of the id’s urges until
appropriate outlets and situations can be found.
In the long run, the ego wants to maximize gratification, just as the id does. However, the ego engages in
secondary thinking, which is relatively rational, realistic and orientated toward problem solving. Thus, the
ego attempts to avoid negative consequences from society and its representatives by behaving ‘properly’.
The superego: is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what
represents right and wrong. → Emerges in early childhood.
The superego can become irrationally demanding in striving for moral perfection, and they become
plagued by excessive feelings of guilt.
Levels of awareness:
Level 1: The conscious consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.
For example: your conscious may include the train of thought in this text and a dim awareness in the back
of your mind that your eyes are getting tired and you’re beginning to get hungry.
Level 2: The preconscious contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be
retrieved. For example: what you had for dinner last night.
Level 3: The unconscious contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of
conscious awareness, but that still have a great influence on behaviour.
For example: forgotten trauma from your childhood.
Freud’s conception of the mind is often compared to an iceberg
that has most of its mass hidden beneath the water’s surface. He
believed that the unconscious is much larger than the conscious
or preconscious. He also proposed that the ego and superego
operate at all three levels of awareness. In contrast, the id is
entirely unconscious, expressing its urges at a conscious level
through the ego.
Conflict and the Tyranny of sex and aggression:
He saw internal battles between the id, ego and superego as routine. This is because the id wants to
gratify its urges immediately, but when the norms of civilised society frequently dictate otherwise.
Freud believed that behaviour is the outcome of an ongoing series of internal conflicts. He asserted that
conflicts centring on sexual and aggressive impulses are especially likely to have far reaching
consequences.
He emphasises sex and aggression because of two main reasons that dominated his thinking:
1.He thought that sex and aggression are subject to more complex and ambiguous social controls than
other basic motives. Thus people often get inconsistent messages about what’s appropriate.
42
