Chapter 1
1.6 Theories of Development A Theory is an organised set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions about development.
Advantages Of Theories:
1. A theory summarises and explains the presently known facts.
2. A theory aims to predict future behaviour.
3. A theory stimulates new research.
→ Theories are essential for understanding children's development because they provide the why of development.
1.6.1 The Biological Perspective According to the biological perspective, behaviour is determined primarily by biological factors.
he biological perspective emphasises the role of heredity (especially genes), the nervous system (especially the brain)
T
and the endocrine system (especially hormones) in behaviour.
.6.1.1 THE MATURATIONAL THEORY
1 (Arnold Gesell: 1880 - 1961)
According to the maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the
body.
Behaviours such as speech, play, and reasoning emerge according to a predetermined developmental timetable.
The maturational theory has little support because it ignores environmental effects.
.6.1.2 THE ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
1 (Konrad Lorenz: 1903 - 1989)
The Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective and states that many behaviours are
adaptive - they have survival value.
Ethologists believe that all animals are programmed biologically so that learning occurs only at certain stages.
critical period is the stage in development when a specific type of learning can take place; before or after the critical
A
period, the same learning is difficult or even impossible.
Imprinting is a form of learning that takes place during a short, early period in the life of an organism when attachment to
members of the same species and sometimes to members of some other species occurs.
sensitive period is also a period during which the child is very susceptible to environmental influences, but in a less
A
stringent way than in the case of a critical period.
Even though the underlying mechanism is biological, experience is essential for triggering programmed, adaptive
→
behaviours.
According to critics, the theory is too vague and needs more evidence.
, .6.1.3 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
1 (Charles Darwin: 1809 - 1882)
Evolutionary psychologists apply Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and thus his principle of natural selection, to
human behaviour as human behaviour results from successful adaptation to the environment.
Evolution refers to the change in the inherited characteristics over successive generations.
volutionary developmental psychology highlights the adaptive value of children's behaviour at different points in
E
development and provides certain insights into the causes of behavioural problems such as aggression in children.
Critics hold the view that this theory is largely based on assumptions and that empirical evidence is mostly lacking.
.6.1.4 EVALUATION OF THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
1 .
Research has proved that a direct relationship exists between biological factors and certain forms of behaviour.
Neuropsychology Neuropsychology focuses on the relationship between brain and behaviour.
Neuroimaging has contributed to our understanding of the role of the brain in behaviour.
esearch findings led to child neuropsychology which focuses on brain health and its
R
influence on especially children's problems associated with school, home, or friends.
Behavioural Genetics ehavioural genetics studies the role of genetic factors ranging from normal to abnormal
B
behaviour.
evelopmental behavioural genetics, focuses on the role of genetics in human and child
D
development.
Psycho-endocrinology Psycho-endocrinology studies the relationship between behaviour and hormones.
In children, hormonal disturbances can affect physical growth and menstruation, as well as
emotional problems like depression.
.6.2 The Psychodynamic
1 he psychodynamic perspective, which especially explores the influence of unconscious psychological motives such as
T
Perspective drives or urges on behaviour, represents the oldest psychiatric/psychological perspective on child development.
.6.2.1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
1 (Sigmund Freud: 1856 - 1939)
The Psychoanalytic theory holds that development is determined largely by how well people resolve the unconscious
conflicts that they face at different ages.
As part of his theory, Freud argued that personality includes three primary components:
, ID The id is a reservoir of primitive instincts and drives.
The id is present at birth and demands immediate gratification of bodily needs and wants.
Ego The ego is the practical, rational component of personality.
It appears during the first year of life, as infants learn that they cannot always have what they want.
Superego The superego is the 'moral agent' in the child's personality.
It emerges during the preschool years as children begin to internalise adult standards of right and wrong.
reud also proposed a series of psychosexual stages through which a child moves in a fixed sequence determined by
F
maturation.
Stage Age Erotic Focus Experiences
Oral 0 - 1 Mouth (sucking, biting) Weaning (from breast / bottle)
Anal 1 - 3 Anus (expelling / retaining faeces) Toilet training
Phallic 3 - 6 Genitals (masturbating) Identifying with adult role models (oedipal crises)
Latency 6 - 11 None (sexually repressed) Expanding social contacts
Genital 11 + Genitals (sexual intimacy) Establishing intimate relationships
Permitting either too much or too little gratification of these urges, problems may result known as fixation.
Fixation means that development is arrested at a certain stage and the child cannot move ahead.
Evaluation Of Freud’s Theory: .
1. Impossible to research the unconscious because it has not been proven empirically.
2. Interpretations are subjective, sometimes illogical and often not agreed upon.
3. His views of development were based on adults recalling the past, not from observing children directly.
4. A small group of patients can’t be viewed as representative of all psychiatric patients.
5. The first six years of life is the main developmental period that determines the rest of a person's life.
6. Freud overemphasised the role of sexual feelings in the development of a child.
Although the mentioned shortcomings, he also left a lasting effect on child development research such as:
1. He noted that early experiences could have enduring effects on children's development.
2. Children often experience conflict between what they want to do and what they should do.
3. He stimulated new research.
, sychoanalysis is a method of treating patients with psychiatric problems through dialogue between the patient and the
P
psychoanalyst.
.6.2.2 ERIKSON’S PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
1 (Erik Erikson: 1902 - 1994)
Erik Erikson embraced Freud's idea of unconscious conflict, but instead focused on the psychological and social aspects
of conflict.
Erikson’s psychological theory of development:
Psychological Stage Age Challenge Virtue
Basic trust vs mistrust Birth - 1 year Develop a sense that the world is safe and good. Hope
Autonomy vs shame 1 - 3 years Realise one is independent who can make decisions. Willpower
Initiative vs guilt 3 - 6 years Develop willingness to new things and handle failure. Purpose
Industry vs inferiority 6 - adolescence Learn basic skills and to work with others. Competency
Identity vs confusion Adolescence Develop a lasting, integrated sense of self. Reliability
Intimacy vs isolation Young adulthood Commit to another in a loving relationship. Love
Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood Contribute to younger people. Care
Integrity vs despair Late adulthood View one's life as satisfactory and worth living. Wisdom
uring each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could have a positive or negative outcome for
D
personality development.
These crises arise because of the psychological needs of the individual and the conflicting needs of society.
Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues.
These basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Evaluation Of Erikson’s Theory: .
1. Lack of empirical evidence.
2. Cultural factors were also largely ignored.
3. More applicable to boys than girls.
4. Doesn't explain the causes of developmental crisis.
.6.3 The Learning Theory
1 he learning theories flowed largely from dissatisfaction with the lack of empirical evidence to support the claims of the
T
Perspective psychodynamic perspective.
1.6 Theories of Development A Theory is an organised set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions about development.
Advantages Of Theories:
1. A theory summarises and explains the presently known facts.
2. A theory aims to predict future behaviour.
3. A theory stimulates new research.
→ Theories are essential for understanding children's development because they provide the why of development.
1.6.1 The Biological Perspective According to the biological perspective, behaviour is determined primarily by biological factors.
he biological perspective emphasises the role of heredity (especially genes), the nervous system (especially the brain)
T
and the endocrine system (especially hormones) in behaviour.
.6.1.1 THE MATURATIONAL THEORY
1 (Arnold Gesell: 1880 - 1961)
According to the maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the
body.
Behaviours such as speech, play, and reasoning emerge according to a predetermined developmental timetable.
The maturational theory has little support because it ignores environmental effects.
.6.1.2 THE ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
1 (Konrad Lorenz: 1903 - 1989)
The Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective and states that many behaviours are
adaptive - they have survival value.
Ethologists believe that all animals are programmed biologically so that learning occurs only at certain stages.
critical period is the stage in development when a specific type of learning can take place; before or after the critical
A
period, the same learning is difficult or even impossible.
Imprinting is a form of learning that takes place during a short, early period in the life of an organism when attachment to
members of the same species and sometimes to members of some other species occurs.
sensitive period is also a period during which the child is very susceptible to environmental influences, but in a less
A
stringent way than in the case of a critical period.
Even though the underlying mechanism is biological, experience is essential for triggering programmed, adaptive
→
behaviours.
According to critics, the theory is too vague and needs more evidence.
, .6.1.3 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
1 (Charles Darwin: 1809 - 1882)
Evolutionary psychologists apply Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and thus his principle of natural selection, to
human behaviour as human behaviour results from successful adaptation to the environment.
Evolution refers to the change in the inherited characteristics over successive generations.
volutionary developmental psychology highlights the adaptive value of children's behaviour at different points in
E
development and provides certain insights into the causes of behavioural problems such as aggression in children.
Critics hold the view that this theory is largely based on assumptions and that empirical evidence is mostly lacking.
.6.1.4 EVALUATION OF THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
1 .
Research has proved that a direct relationship exists between biological factors and certain forms of behaviour.
Neuropsychology Neuropsychology focuses on the relationship between brain and behaviour.
Neuroimaging has contributed to our understanding of the role of the brain in behaviour.
esearch findings led to child neuropsychology which focuses on brain health and its
R
influence on especially children's problems associated with school, home, or friends.
Behavioural Genetics ehavioural genetics studies the role of genetic factors ranging from normal to abnormal
B
behaviour.
evelopmental behavioural genetics, focuses on the role of genetics in human and child
D
development.
Psycho-endocrinology Psycho-endocrinology studies the relationship between behaviour and hormones.
In children, hormonal disturbances can affect physical growth and menstruation, as well as
emotional problems like depression.
.6.2 The Psychodynamic
1 he psychodynamic perspective, which especially explores the influence of unconscious psychological motives such as
T
Perspective drives or urges on behaviour, represents the oldest psychiatric/psychological perspective on child development.
.6.2.1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
1 (Sigmund Freud: 1856 - 1939)
The Psychoanalytic theory holds that development is determined largely by how well people resolve the unconscious
conflicts that they face at different ages.
As part of his theory, Freud argued that personality includes three primary components:
, ID The id is a reservoir of primitive instincts and drives.
The id is present at birth and demands immediate gratification of bodily needs and wants.
Ego The ego is the practical, rational component of personality.
It appears during the first year of life, as infants learn that they cannot always have what they want.
Superego The superego is the 'moral agent' in the child's personality.
It emerges during the preschool years as children begin to internalise adult standards of right and wrong.
reud also proposed a series of psychosexual stages through which a child moves in a fixed sequence determined by
F
maturation.
Stage Age Erotic Focus Experiences
Oral 0 - 1 Mouth (sucking, biting) Weaning (from breast / bottle)
Anal 1 - 3 Anus (expelling / retaining faeces) Toilet training
Phallic 3 - 6 Genitals (masturbating) Identifying with adult role models (oedipal crises)
Latency 6 - 11 None (sexually repressed) Expanding social contacts
Genital 11 + Genitals (sexual intimacy) Establishing intimate relationships
Permitting either too much or too little gratification of these urges, problems may result known as fixation.
Fixation means that development is arrested at a certain stage and the child cannot move ahead.
Evaluation Of Freud’s Theory: .
1. Impossible to research the unconscious because it has not been proven empirically.
2. Interpretations are subjective, sometimes illogical and often not agreed upon.
3. His views of development were based on adults recalling the past, not from observing children directly.
4. A small group of patients can’t be viewed as representative of all psychiatric patients.
5. The first six years of life is the main developmental period that determines the rest of a person's life.
6. Freud overemphasised the role of sexual feelings in the development of a child.
Although the mentioned shortcomings, he also left a lasting effect on child development research such as:
1. He noted that early experiences could have enduring effects on children's development.
2. Children often experience conflict between what they want to do and what they should do.
3. He stimulated new research.
, sychoanalysis is a method of treating patients with psychiatric problems through dialogue between the patient and the
P
psychoanalyst.
.6.2.2 ERIKSON’S PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
1 (Erik Erikson: 1902 - 1994)
Erik Erikson embraced Freud's idea of unconscious conflict, but instead focused on the psychological and social aspects
of conflict.
Erikson’s psychological theory of development:
Psychological Stage Age Challenge Virtue
Basic trust vs mistrust Birth - 1 year Develop a sense that the world is safe and good. Hope
Autonomy vs shame 1 - 3 years Realise one is independent who can make decisions. Willpower
Initiative vs guilt 3 - 6 years Develop willingness to new things and handle failure. Purpose
Industry vs inferiority 6 - adolescence Learn basic skills and to work with others. Competency
Identity vs confusion Adolescence Develop a lasting, integrated sense of self. Reliability
Intimacy vs isolation Young adulthood Commit to another in a loving relationship. Love
Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood Contribute to younger people. Care
Integrity vs despair Late adulthood View one's life as satisfactory and worth living. Wisdom
uring each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could have a positive or negative outcome for
D
personality development.
These crises arise because of the psychological needs of the individual and the conflicting needs of society.
Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues.
These basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Evaluation Of Erikson’s Theory: .
1. Lack of empirical evidence.
2. Cultural factors were also largely ignored.
3. More applicable to boys than girls.
4. Doesn't explain the causes of developmental crisis.
.6.3 The Learning Theory
1 he learning theories flowed largely from dissatisfaction with the lack of empirical evidence to support the claims of the
T
Perspective psychodynamic perspective.
