CHAPTER 7 remember things that are consistent with their schemas. Semantic Summarise evidence on the controversy regarding recovered
networks consist of concepts joined by pathways. memories of childhood sexual abuse.
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INTO MEMORY
Research suggests that activation spreads along the paths of People who tend to accept recovered memories of abuse note that
Clarify the role of attention in memory and depth of processing
semantic networks to activate closely associated words. Parallel child abuse is quite common and argue that repression is a normal
in memory.
distributed processing models of memory assert that specific response to it. Memory researchers who tend to be sceptical about
Attention, which fosters encoding, is inherently selective and has
memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in recovered memories argue that a minority of therapists prod their
been compared to a filter. Evidence indicates that the location of the
connectionist networks. patients until they inadvertently create the memories of abuse that
attention filter may be flexible, depending on the cognitive load of
they are searching for.
current processing.
RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY
Explain the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, and understand how They point out that countless studies have demonstrated that it is not
Divided attention undermines encoding and performance on other
context cues can influence retrieval. all that difficult to create false memories, and that memory is more
tasks, including driving. According to levels-of-processing theory,
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to malleable and less reliable than assumed.
structural, phonemic and semantic encoding represent progressively
remember something you know that feels just out of reach. It clearly Memories recovered spontaneously appear more likely to be
deeper levels of processing. Deeper processing generally results in
represents a failure in retrieval. Memories can be jogged by retrieval authentic than memories recovered in therapy.
better recall of information.
cues.
Explain how elaboration and visual imagery can enrich IN SEARCH OF THE MEMORY TRACE: THE
encoding. Reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate recall. This PHYSIOLOGY OF MEMORY
Elaboration enriches encoding by linking a stimulus to other factor may account for cases in which hypnosis appears to aid recall Distinguish between two types of amnesia, and identify the
information. The creation of visual images to represent words can of previously forgotten information. In general, however, hypnosis anatomical structures implicated in memory.
enrich encoding. Visual imagery may help by creating two memory seems to increase people's tendency to report incorrect information. In retrograde amnesia, a person loses memory for events prior to the
codes rather than just one. Self-referent encoding that emphasises amnesia. In anterograde amnesia, a person shows memory deficits
personal relevance may be especially useful in facilitating retention. Summarise research on the reconstructive nature of memory, for events subsequent to the onset of the amnesia. Studies of
Increasing the motivation to remember at the time of encoding can and apply the concept of source monitoring to everyday memory amnesia and other research suggest that the hippocampus and the
enhance memory. errors. broader medial temporal lobe system play a major role in memory.
Memories are not exact replicas of past experiences. Memory is These areas may be crucial to the consolidation of memories.
partially reconstructive. Research by Loftus on the misinformation
STORAGE: MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN MEMORY
effect shows that information learned after an event can alter one's Describe evidence on the neural circuitry of memory, and
Describe the sensory store in memory, and discuss the
memory of the event. evidence on neurogenesis and memory.
durability and capacity of short term memory.
The sensory store preserves information in its original form, probably According to Kandel, memory traces reflect alterations in
Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce inaccuracies neurotransmitter release at specific synapses. Thompson's research
for only a fraction of a second. Some theorists view stimulus
into memory. Reality monitoring involves deciding whether memories suggests that memory traces may consist of localised neural circuits.
persistence as more like an echo than a memory. Short-term memory
are based on perceptions of actual events or on just thinking about Memories may also depend on long-term potentiation, which is a
can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds.
the events. Source monitoring is the process of making attributions durable increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific
Short-term memory has a limited capacity that has long been
about the origins of memories. According to Marcia Johnson, neural pathway. Neurogenesis may contribute to the sculpting of
believed to be about seven chunks of information. However, a more
source-monitoring errors appear to be common and may explain why neural circuits for memories.
recent estimate suggesting that the capacity of STM is four items,
people sometimes 'recall' something that was only suggested to
plus or minus one, is becoming increasingly influential.
them. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMORY SYSTEMS
Describe Baddeley’s model of working memory, and discuss Compare and contrast declarative and nondeclarative
research on working memory capacity. FORGETTING: WHEN MEMORY LAPSES (procedural) memory.
Short-term memory appears to involve more than a simple rehearsal Describe Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve, and discuss three Declarative memory is memory for facts, whereas nondeclarative
loop and has been reconceptualised by Baddeley as working measures of retention. memory is memory for actions, skills and conditioned responses,
memory. Working memory includes the phonological loop, the Ebbinghaus's early studies of nonsense syllables suggested that Declarative memory depends more on conscious attention and is
visuospatial sketchpad, a central executive system and an episodic people forget very rapidly. Subsequent research showed that more vulnerable to forgetting.
buffer. Individual differences in working memory capacity correlate Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve was exceptionally steep.
with measures of many cognitive abilities. Distinguish between episodic and semantic memory, and
Forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall, recognise or retrospective and prospective memory.
Evaluate the permanence of long term memory, and discuss how relearn information. Different methods of measuring retention often Tulving subdivided declarative memory into episodic and semantic
knowledge is represented in memory. produce different estimates of forgetting. Recognition measures tend memory. The episodic memory system processes temporally dated
Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that may hold to yield higher estimates of retention than recall measures. recollections of personal experiences. The semantic memory system
information indefinitely. Penfield's ESB research and the existence of processes general facts. Theorists have also distinguished between
flashbulb memories suggest that LTM storage may be permanent, but Understand the potential causes of forgetting. retrospective memory (remembering past events) and prospective
the evidence is not convincing. Some forgetting, including pseudoforgetting, is caused by ineffective memory (remembering to do things in the future). Prospective
encoding of information, which is usually due to lack of attention. memory plays a pervasive role in everyday life.
Information in long-term memory can be organised in simple Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs spontaneously with the
categories, or multilevel classification systems, called conceptual passage of time. It has proven difficult to show that decay occurs in
hierarchies. A schema is an organised cluster of knowledge about a long-term memory.
particular object or event. Generally, people are more likely to
networks consist of concepts joined by pathways. memories of childhood sexual abuse.
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INTO MEMORY
Research suggests that activation spreads along the paths of People who tend to accept recovered memories of abuse note that
Clarify the role of attention in memory and depth of processing
semantic networks to activate closely associated words. Parallel child abuse is quite common and argue that repression is a normal
in memory.
distributed processing models of memory assert that specific response to it. Memory researchers who tend to be sceptical about
Attention, which fosters encoding, is inherently selective and has
memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in recovered memories argue that a minority of therapists prod their
been compared to a filter. Evidence indicates that the location of the
connectionist networks. patients until they inadvertently create the memories of abuse that
attention filter may be flexible, depending on the cognitive load of
they are searching for.
current processing.
RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY
Explain the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, and understand how They point out that countless studies have demonstrated that it is not
Divided attention undermines encoding and performance on other
context cues can influence retrieval. all that difficult to create false memories, and that memory is more
tasks, including driving. According to levels-of-processing theory,
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to malleable and less reliable than assumed.
structural, phonemic and semantic encoding represent progressively
remember something you know that feels just out of reach. It clearly Memories recovered spontaneously appear more likely to be
deeper levels of processing. Deeper processing generally results in
represents a failure in retrieval. Memories can be jogged by retrieval authentic than memories recovered in therapy.
better recall of information.
cues.
Explain how elaboration and visual imagery can enrich IN SEARCH OF THE MEMORY TRACE: THE
encoding. Reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate recall. This PHYSIOLOGY OF MEMORY
Elaboration enriches encoding by linking a stimulus to other factor may account for cases in which hypnosis appears to aid recall Distinguish between two types of amnesia, and identify the
information. The creation of visual images to represent words can of previously forgotten information. In general, however, hypnosis anatomical structures implicated in memory.
enrich encoding. Visual imagery may help by creating two memory seems to increase people's tendency to report incorrect information. In retrograde amnesia, a person loses memory for events prior to the
codes rather than just one. Self-referent encoding that emphasises amnesia. In anterograde amnesia, a person shows memory deficits
personal relevance may be especially useful in facilitating retention. Summarise research on the reconstructive nature of memory, for events subsequent to the onset of the amnesia. Studies of
Increasing the motivation to remember at the time of encoding can and apply the concept of source monitoring to everyday memory amnesia and other research suggest that the hippocampus and the
enhance memory. errors. broader medial temporal lobe system play a major role in memory.
Memories are not exact replicas of past experiences. Memory is These areas may be crucial to the consolidation of memories.
partially reconstructive. Research by Loftus on the misinformation
STORAGE: MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN MEMORY
effect shows that information learned after an event can alter one's Describe evidence on the neural circuitry of memory, and
Describe the sensory store in memory, and discuss the
memory of the event. evidence on neurogenesis and memory.
durability and capacity of short term memory.
The sensory store preserves information in its original form, probably According to Kandel, memory traces reflect alterations in
Even the simple act of retelling a story can introduce inaccuracies neurotransmitter release at specific synapses. Thompson's research
for only a fraction of a second. Some theorists view stimulus
into memory. Reality monitoring involves deciding whether memories suggests that memory traces may consist of localised neural circuits.
persistence as more like an echo than a memory. Short-term memory
are based on perceptions of actual events or on just thinking about Memories may also depend on long-term potentiation, which is a
can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds.
the events. Source monitoring is the process of making attributions durable increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific
Short-term memory has a limited capacity that has long been
about the origins of memories. According to Marcia Johnson, neural pathway. Neurogenesis may contribute to the sculpting of
believed to be about seven chunks of information. However, a more
source-monitoring errors appear to be common and may explain why neural circuits for memories.
recent estimate suggesting that the capacity of STM is four items,
people sometimes 'recall' something that was only suggested to
plus or minus one, is becoming increasingly influential.
them. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMORY SYSTEMS
Describe Baddeley’s model of working memory, and discuss Compare and contrast declarative and nondeclarative
research on working memory capacity. FORGETTING: WHEN MEMORY LAPSES (procedural) memory.
Short-term memory appears to involve more than a simple rehearsal Describe Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve, and discuss three Declarative memory is memory for facts, whereas nondeclarative
loop and has been reconceptualised by Baddeley as working measures of retention. memory is memory for actions, skills and conditioned responses,
memory. Working memory includes the phonological loop, the Ebbinghaus's early studies of nonsense syllables suggested that Declarative memory depends more on conscious attention and is
visuospatial sketchpad, a central executive system and an episodic people forget very rapidly. Subsequent research showed that more vulnerable to forgetting.
buffer. Individual differences in working memory capacity correlate Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve was exceptionally steep.
with measures of many cognitive abilities. Distinguish between episodic and semantic memory, and
Forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall, recognise or retrospective and prospective memory.
Evaluate the permanence of long term memory, and discuss how relearn information. Different methods of measuring retention often Tulving subdivided declarative memory into episodic and semantic
knowledge is represented in memory. produce different estimates of forgetting. Recognition measures tend memory. The episodic memory system processes temporally dated
Long-term memory is an unlimited capacity store that may hold to yield higher estimates of retention than recall measures. recollections of personal experiences. The semantic memory system
information indefinitely. Penfield's ESB research and the existence of processes general facts. Theorists have also distinguished between
flashbulb memories suggest that LTM storage may be permanent, but Understand the potential causes of forgetting. retrospective memory (remembering past events) and prospective
the evidence is not convincing. Some forgetting, including pseudoforgetting, is caused by ineffective memory (remembering to do things in the future). Prospective
encoding of information, which is usually due to lack of attention. memory plays a pervasive role in everyday life.
Information in long-term memory can be organised in simple Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs spontaneously with the
categories, or multilevel classification systems, called conceptual passage of time. It has proven difficult to show that decay occurs in
hierarchies. A schema is an organised cluster of knowledge about a long-term memory.
particular object or event. Generally, people are more likely to
