2026 Newest |NSG 532 Exam 2|
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What are the 3 functional anatomical elements of the endocrine
system?
Primary Endocrine Glands
Accessory Endocrinocytes all over the body systems
Hormones
What is the function of the endocrine system?
Control functions of other systems in the body to maintain
physiologic homeostasis
How is the endocrine system controlled?
By nerve impulses, neurotransmitters, and the hormones produced
by itself
Describe the overall steps of endocrine communication
1. Starts w/stimulation -- usually a change in internal/external
environment
2. Endocrine cells produce hormones
3. The signal (hormone) travels through blood circulation
4. The hormone reaches a target cell w/receptor for the hormone
5. Ligand binds to receptor
,6. Creates a signal transduction
7. Signal transduction leads to a physiologic response
What can endocrine cells be stimulated by?
Homeostatic changes in biomolecules and minerals in the plasma
(Na, K, Ca, GLU, etc.)
By other hormones (example hypothalamic hormones and pituitary
hormones
By nerve impulses and neurotransmitters
By immune responses ---pro/anti inflammatory cytokines
What is the difference between Endocrine and Exocrine glands?
Endocrine --closed--release hormones into the bloodstream
Exocrine--open--release hormones directly onto body
surfaces/cavities; have a duct
What are the main endocrine glands?
What is a defining feature of all these glands?
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Pineal Gland
They are neuroendocrine glands --contain both endocrine and
nervous tissues
What are the secondary endocrine glands? Why are they called
secondary?
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Thymus
,Adrenals
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testis
These glands are controlled by the main glands. They produce the
terminal hormones
Describe accessory endocrinocytes. What is the accessory
endocrinocytes?
Cells which produce hormones, but are not directly part of the
endocrine system. They are located in other organs/parts of the body
system.
1. Heart: Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
2. Stomach: Gastrin; Ghrelin
3. Small intestine: Secreting; Cholecystokinin (CCK); Glucose-
dependent Insulinotropic Peptide
4. Kidney: Calcitriool; Erythropoietin
5. Placenta: Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
6. Adipocytes: Leptin; Adiponectin, Resistin
What is an example of a mixed gland?
Pancreas
Has both exocrine and endocrine functions
Describe neuroendocrine cells
Relay information between the endocrine system and the nervous
system
Receive Neuronal Input from the ANS and release hormones into
blood
Major center of neuroendocrine integration is the hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland
, Example is the neuroendocrine glands of the adrenal medulla
What are the three classes of hormones? Their characteristics?
Peptide/Protein Hormones: hydrophilic (lipophobic)
Amine Hormones: Hydrophilic or hydrophobic (lipophobic or
lipophilic)
Steroid Hormones: Hydrophobic (lipophilic)
Describe the process of biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones
A stimulus interacts with a hormonal gene
The hormonal gene transcribes an mRNA
The mRNA is translated in ribosomes to form a Pre-Prohormone
The Pre-Prohormone undergoes post-translational modifications in
the RER to become a Pro-Hormone
The Pro-Hormone undergoes post-translational modifications in the
Golgi to become an Active Hormone
Active hormones are taken by secretory vesicles and transported to
the cell membrane
They are exocytosed into the bloodstream to reach their targets
Describe characteristics of peptide/protein hormones
Polar, hydrophilic, and lipid INSOLUBLE
1. are synthesized as prohormones in the RER and requiring further
cleavage to activate
2. Are stored in secretory vesicles
3. Are polar, hydrophilic and lipid- insoluble
4. Are soluble in plasma and can be transported freely in blood
5. Have G protein-coupled receptors and second messenger
most recent update
|Comprehensive questions and
verified answers/accurate solutions
|Already graded A+
What are the 3 functional anatomical elements of the endocrine
system?
Primary Endocrine Glands
Accessory Endocrinocytes all over the body systems
Hormones
What is the function of the endocrine system?
Control functions of other systems in the body to maintain
physiologic homeostasis
How is the endocrine system controlled?
By nerve impulses, neurotransmitters, and the hormones produced
by itself
Describe the overall steps of endocrine communication
1. Starts w/stimulation -- usually a change in internal/external
environment
2. Endocrine cells produce hormones
3. The signal (hormone) travels through blood circulation
4. The hormone reaches a target cell w/receptor for the hormone
5. Ligand binds to receptor
,6. Creates a signal transduction
7. Signal transduction leads to a physiologic response
What can endocrine cells be stimulated by?
Homeostatic changes in biomolecules and minerals in the plasma
(Na, K, Ca, GLU, etc.)
By other hormones (example hypothalamic hormones and pituitary
hormones
By nerve impulses and neurotransmitters
By immune responses ---pro/anti inflammatory cytokines
What is the difference between Endocrine and Exocrine glands?
Endocrine --closed--release hormones into the bloodstream
Exocrine--open--release hormones directly onto body
surfaces/cavities; have a duct
What are the main endocrine glands?
What is a defining feature of all these glands?
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Pineal Gland
They are neuroendocrine glands --contain both endocrine and
nervous tissues
What are the secondary endocrine glands? Why are they called
secondary?
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Thymus
,Adrenals
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testis
These glands are controlled by the main glands. They produce the
terminal hormones
Describe accessory endocrinocytes. What is the accessory
endocrinocytes?
Cells which produce hormones, but are not directly part of the
endocrine system. They are located in other organs/parts of the body
system.
1. Heart: Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
2. Stomach: Gastrin; Ghrelin
3. Small intestine: Secreting; Cholecystokinin (CCK); Glucose-
dependent Insulinotropic Peptide
4. Kidney: Calcitriool; Erythropoietin
5. Placenta: Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
6. Adipocytes: Leptin; Adiponectin, Resistin
What is an example of a mixed gland?
Pancreas
Has both exocrine and endocrine functions
Describe neuroendocrine cells
Relay information between the endocrine system and the nervous
system
Receive Neuronal Input from the ANS and release hormones into
blood
Major center of neuroendocrine integration is the hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland
, Example is the neuroendocrine glands of the adrenal medulla
What are the three classes of hormones? Their characteristics?
Peptide/Protein Hormones: hydrophilic (lipophobic)
Amine Hormones: Hydrophilic or hydrophobic (lipophobic or
lipophilic)
Steroid Hormones: Hydrophobic (lipophilic)
Describe the process of biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones
A stimulus interacts with a hormonal gene
The hormonal gene transcribes an mRNA
The mRNA is translated in ribosomes to form a Pre-Prohormone
The Pre-Prohormone undergoes post-translational modifications in
the RER to become a Pro-Hormone
The Pro-Hormone undergoes post-translational modifications in the
Golgi to become an Active Hormone
Active hormones are taken by secretory vesicles and transported to
the cell membrane
They are exocytosed into the bloodstream to reach their targets
Describe characteristics of peptide/protein hormones
Polar, hydrophilic, and lipid INSOLUBLE
1. are synthesized as prohormones in the RER and requiring further
cleavage to activate
2. Are stored in secretory vesicles
3. Are polar, hydrophilic and lipid- insoluble
4. Are soluble in plasma and can be transported freely in blood
5. Have G protein-coupled receptors and second messenger
