NSG 533 EXAM 1 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
(VERIFIED) GRADED A+ | LATEST UPDATE
2026/2027 | GUARANTEED PASS.
5 essential components of pathophysiology -ANSWER 1. Etiology
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathogenesis
4. Clinical Manifestations
5. Outcomes
other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease -ANSWER idiopathic and
cryptogenic
define prevalence of epidemiology -ANSWER number of cases, both old and new,
during a specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death -ANSWER 1. ATP
Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease -ANSWER ATP deletion
,what are the two phases of ATP production? -ANSWER 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis) 2.
Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield? -ANSWER 2
define iatrogenic -ANSWER etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical
intervention
define incidence of epidemiology -ANSWER the new number of cases in a given
population in a specific time period
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? -ANSWER 36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired? -ANSWER 1. Hypoxia
2.
ischemia -ANSWER reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion -ANSWER obstruction --> ischemia -->
decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased
anaerobic glycolysis
explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production -ANSWER normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most
potassium ions are inside the cell
,when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and
potassium freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
why are free radicals bad? -ANSWER they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell
and drill holes in its membrane
what are reactive oxygen species? -ANSWER highly reactive forms of oxygen
typically from the mitochondria
why are antioxidants important -ANSWER protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress -ANSWER decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? -ANSWER 1.
Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress -ANSWER Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations -ANSWER 1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
, define reperfusion injury -ANSWER when blood flow is restored to ischemic
tissues, additional damage can occur resulting in cell death
proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) -ANSWER 1. oxidative stress
2. nitrogen-based free radicals
3. increased intracellular calcium
4. inflammation
5. complement activation
explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury -ANSWER reoxygenation
generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and
phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? -ANSWER 1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite
4. hydrogen peroxide
what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury?
ANSWER further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the
mitochondria
explain bilirubin -ANSWER a pigment that is released when RBC break down -->
pigment is released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot
be excreted into the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic
acid --> becomes conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine
(VERIFIED) GRADED A+ | LATEST UPDATE
2026/2027 | GUARANTEED PASS.
5 essential components of pathophysiology -ANSWER 1. Etiology
2. Epidemiology
3. Pathogenesis
4. Clinical Manifestations
5. Outcomes
other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease -ANSWER idiopathic and
cryptogenic
define prevalence of epidemiology -ANSWER number of cases, both old and new,
during a specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death -ANSWER 1. ATP
Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease -ANSWER ATP deletion
,what are the two phases of ATP production? -ANSWER 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis) 2.
Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield? -ANSWER 2
define iatrogenic -ANSWER etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical
intervention
define incidence of epidemiology -ANSWER the new number of cases in a given
population in a specific time period
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? -ANSWER 36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired? -ANSWER 1. Hypoxia
2.
ischemia -ANSWER reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion -ANSWER obstruction --> ischemia -->
decreased ATP production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased
anaerobic glycolysis
explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production -ANSWER normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most
potassium ions are inside the cell
,when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and
potassium freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
why are free radicals bad? -ANSWER they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell
and drill holes in its membrane
what are reactive oxygen species? -ANSWER highly reactive forms of oxygen
typically from the mitochondria
why are antioxidants important -ANSWER protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress -ANSWER decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? -ANSWER 1.
Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress -ANSWER Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations -ANSWER 1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
, define reperfusion injury -ANSWER when blood flow is restored to ischemic
tissues, additional damage can occur resulting in cell death
proposed reasons for reperfusion injury (5) -ANSWER 1. oxidative stress
2. nitrogen-based free radicals
3. increased intracellular calcium
4. inflammation
5. complement activation
explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury -ANSWER reoxygenation
generates ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and
phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? -ANSWER 1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite
4. hydrogen peroxide
what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury?
ANSWER further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the
mitochondria
explain bilirubin -ANSWER a pigment that is released when RBC break down -->
pigment is released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot
be excreted into the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic
acid --> becomes conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine
