AP Chemistry AP Exam Study Guide| With complete solution RATED A+ | NEW EDITION | 100% CORRECT

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AP​ ​Chemistry​ ​AP​ ​Exam​ ​Study​ ​Guide
Learn-​ ​ethane,​ ​methane,​ ​baking​ ​soda,​ ​vinegar
Introduction​ ​to​ ​the​ ​atom
Elements​ ​and​ ​atoms
-sublimation-​ ​solid​ ​to​ ​gas
-deposition-​ ​gas​ ​to​ ​solid
-atom-​ ​most​ ​basic​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element
-fundamental​ ​elements​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom
-proton-​ ​in​ ​nucleus,​ ​defines​ ​the​ ​element,​ ​on​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​ranked​ ​on​ ​atomic
number​ ​(number​ ​of​ ​protons);​ ​positive​ ​charge
-electron-​ ​chemical​ ​characteristics;​ ​negative​ ​charge
-neutron-​ ​mass;​ ​no​ ​charge
-protons/neutrons​ ​=​ ​nucleus​ ​of​ ​atom
Isotopes
-atoms​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​that​ ​differ​ ​in​ ​number​ ​of​ ​neutrons
-protium-​ ​hydrogen​ ​with​ ​0​ ​neutron
-deuterium-​ ​hydrogen​ ​with​ ​1​ ​neutron
-tritium-​ ​2​ ​neutrons
-can​ ​elements​ ​have​ ​an​ ​infinite​ ​number​ ​of​ ​neutrons?
-as​ ​number​ ​of​ ​isotopes​ ​increase/decrease,​ ​atom​ ​becomes​ ​less​ ​stable​ ​until​ ​finally
element​ ​decays​ ​faster​ ​than​ ​elements​ ​can​ ​be​ ​gained
-alpha​ ​particles-​ ​helium​ ​nucleus,​ ​2​ ​protons​ ​2​ ​neutrons,​ ​no​ ​electrons
-element-mass​ ​number,​ ​carbon-12​ ​or​ ​carbon-13
Atomic​ ​weight​ ​and​ ​atomic​ ​mass
-atomic​ ​mass​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​amu,​ ​measure​ ​one​ ​atom
-defined​ ​using​ ​carbon​ ​12​ ​has​ ​12​ ​amu
-atomic​ ​weight​ ​or​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass
-still​ ​in​ ​amu,​ ​carbon​ ​12,​ ​14
-not​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​atom,​ ​is​ ​weighted​ ​average​ ​of​ ​all​ ​isotopes
-on​ ​periodic​ ​table
-1​ ​proton/neutron​ ​=​ ​1​ ​amu
-1​ ​gram​ ​=​ ​6.02​ ​x​ ​10^23​ ​amu​ ​or​ ​1​ ​mol​ ​amu
Mole
-6.02​ ​x​ ​10^23
-Avogadro's​ ​number
John​ ​Dalton​ ​Atomic​ ​Theory
-first​ ​complete​ ​attempt​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​all​ ​matter​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​its​ ​atoms​ ​and​ ​its
​ ​properties
-elements​ ​are​ ​made​ ​of​ ​extremely​ ​small​ ​things​ ​called​ ​atoms

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-atoms​ ​of​ ​given​ ​element​ ​are​ ​identical​ ​in​ ​size,​ ​mass,​ ​etc.
-atoms​ ​of​ ​dif​ ​elements​ ​differ​ ​in​ ​size,​ ​mass,​ ​etc.
-incorrect​ ​because​ ​of​ ​isotopes
-atoms​ ​can​ ​not​ ​be​ ​subdivided,​ ​created,​ ​destroyed
-untrue-​ ​protons/neutrons
-atoms​ ​of​ ​different​ ​elements​ ​combine​ ​in​ ​simple​ ​whole-number​ ​ratios​ ​to​ ​form​ ​chemical
compounds
-in​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​combined,​ ​rearranged,​ ​or​ ​separated
-first​ ​attempt​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​all​ ​matter​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​and​ ​their​ ​properties
-based​ ​his​ ​theory​ ​on​ ​law​ ​of​ ​conservation​ ​of​ ​mass​ ​and​ ​law​ ​of​ ​constant​ ​composition
-law​ ​of​ ​constant​ ​composition-​ ​pure​ ​compounds​ ​always​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​proportion
of​ ​elements-​ ​NaCl​ ​always​ ​has​ ​1​ ​Na​ ​and​ ​1​ ​Cl
Mass​ ​Spectrometry
-can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​look​ ​at​ ​isotopes,​ ​find​ ​average​ ​atomic​ ​mass,​ ​look​ ​at​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​a​ ​sample
-ionizer​ ​(vacuum)-​ ​insert​ ​sample,​ ​hit​ ​with​ ​electrons,​ ​pull​ ​electrons​ ​away​ ​from​ ​sample
(cathode​ ​ray​ ​tube)
-mass​ ​analyzer​ ​(negative​ ​electric​ ​field​ ​to​ ​move​ ​electrons​ ​into​ ​it),​ ​magnet​ ​bend​ ​path​ ​ions,
if​ ​really​ ​heavier​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​make​ ​corner
-detector-​ ​electron​ ​multiplier​ ​(plate,​ ​as​ ​electrons​ ​hit​ ​it,​ ​spawns​ ​more​ ​electrons​ ​that​ ​hits
next​ ​plate​ ​to​ ​strengthen​ ​charge,​ ​get​ ​signal​ ​that​ ​is​ ​amplified,​ ​sent​ ​to​ ​computer)
-heavier​ ​element​ ​farther​ ​to​ ​left
-calibrate​ ​machine,​ ​run​ ​electron,​ ​calibrate​ ​magnet​ ​so​ ​electron​ ​hit​ ​plate
-amu​ ​on​ ​x​ ​axis,​ ​intensity​ ​on​ ​y​ ​axis
-abundance​ ​times​ ​mass​ ​+​ ​abundance​ ​times​ ​mass​ ​….​ ​=​ ​average​ ​atomic​ ​mass
-abundance​ ​is​ ​decimal
-can​ ​find​ ​amino​ ​acids​ ​in​ ​myoglobin
-look​ ​at​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​a​ ​molecule​ ​or​ ​fragments​ ​in​ ​micromolecules
-Relative​ ​abundance​​ ​of​ ​an​ ​isotope​ ​is​ ​the​ ​fraction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​element​ ​that​ ​exists​ ​on​ ​Earth
with​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​atomic​ ​mass.
-A​ ​mass​ ​spectrometer​ ​ionizes​ ​atoms​ ​and​ ​molecules​ ​with​ ​a​ ​high-energy​ ​electron​ ​beam​ ​and
then​ ​deflects​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​through​ ​a​ ​magnetic​ ​field​ ​based​ ​on​ ​the​ ​mass-to-charge​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​the
ion​ ​m​ ​divided​ ​by​ ​z

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Isotope​ ​Notation




-writing​ ​out​ ​elements-​ ​ ​ ​mass​ ​number(A)​ ​(Z+N)​ ​over​ ​atomic​ ​number​ ​then​ ​element
-if​ ​neutral​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​number(z)​ ​=​ ​#​ ​electrons
Periodic​ ​Table
Basics​ ​of​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table
-groups-​ ​vertical​ ​columns​ ​on​ ​periodic​ ​table
-labeled​ ​1-18​ ​or​ ​1A​ ​2A​ ​3A​ ​(skipping​ ​d​ ​subshell)​ ​to​ ​8A​ ​when​ ​thinking​ ​about
valence​ ​electrons
-don’t​ ​label​ ​f​ ​block
-elements​ ​in​ ​groups​ ​have​ ​same​ ​number​ ​electrons​ ​so​ ​similar​ ​characteristics
-period-​ ​horizontal​ ​row​ ​on​ ​periodic​ ​table
-alkali​ ​metals-​ ​group​ ​1​ ​(Li,​ ​Na)
-soft,​ ​silvery,​ ​very​ ​reactive,​ ​react​ ​with​ ​water,​ ​so​ ​reactive​ ​that​ ​never​ ​found​ ​pure​ ​in
nature
-hydrogen​ ​exception​ ​in​ ​group​ ​1​ ​(nonmetal),​ ​not​ ​considered​ ​alkali​ ​metal
-so​ ​reactive​ ​cause​ ​only​ ​need​ ​lose​ ​1​ ​electron​ ​to​ ​get​ ​octet
-alkaline​ ​earth​ ​metals-​ ​group​ ​2
-reactive​ ​(not​ ​as​ ​much​ ​as​ ​1)​ ​so​ ​never​ ​found​ ​in​ ​pure​ ​state​ ​in​ ​nature
-only​ ​need​ ​lose​ ​2​ ​electrons
-metals

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-solid​ ​at​ ​room​ ​temperature​ ​except​ ​mercury
-malleable,​ ​ductile​ ​(can​ ​make​ ​them​ ​into​ ​wires)
-good​ ​conductors​ ​of​ ​heat/electricity
-left​ ​side​ ​of​ ​table
-shiny,​ ​dense,​ ​except​ ​Hg​ ​all​ ​are​ ​solid,​ ​can​ ​bend/shape​ ​them​ ​(malleabile),​ ​conduct
electricity​ ​well
-bound​ ​metals​ ​very​ ​willing​ ​to​ ​share​ ​electrons,​ ​so​ ​freely​ ​bound​ ​electrons​ ​can​ ​move
​ ​from​ ​metal​ ​atom​ ​to​ ​metal​ ​atom​ ​to​ ​create​ ​a​ ​sea​ ​of​ ​electrons,​ ​making​ ​the​ ​compound
malleable​ ​and​ ​allowing​ ​to​ ​transport​ ​electricity
-those​ ​with​ ​low​ ​electronegativity​ ​more​ ​metallic​ ​in​ ​ ​nature​ ​(more​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​share
electrons)
-s,d,f​ ​and​ ​part​ ​of​ ​p​ ​block​ ​considered​ ​metals
-nonmetals
-brittle​ ​in​ ​solid​ ​form
-not​ ​malleable,​ ​poor​ ​conductors​ ​of​ ​heat/electricity
-right​ ​side​ ​of​ ​table
-halogens​ ​(group​ ​17)
-very​ ​reactive​ ​nonmetals,​ ​colorful,​ ​corrosive,​ ​salt​ ​former,​ ​diatomic
-noble​ ​gases​ ​(group​ ​18)
-colorless,​ ​unreactive
-metalloids-​ ​have​ ​characteristics​ ​of​ ​both​ ​metals/nonmetals​ ​(boron,​ ​silicon,​ ​arsenic,
germanium)
-not​ ​aluminum​ ​or​ ​po
Transition​ ​metals​ ​(group​ ​3-12)
-element​ ​whose​ ​atom​ ​has​ ​an​ ​incomplete​ ​d​ ​subshell​ ​or​ ​which​ ​can​ ​give​ ​rise​ ​to​ ​cations​ ​with
an​ ​incomplete​ ​d​ ​subshell
-iron-​ ​[Ar]​ ​4s^23d^6​ ​or​ ​3d^6​ ​4s^2
-incomplete​ ​d​ ​subshell
-Zn​ ​not​ ​one​ ​since​ ​full​ ​d​ ​shell​ ​when​ ​cation​ ​and​ ​when​ ​an​ ​atom
Counting​ ​valence​ ​electrons​ ​for​ ​main​ ​groups
-valence​ ​electrons-​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​outermost​ ​shell/energy​ ​level
-look​ ​at​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​last​ ​energy​ ​level​ ​(not​ ​subshell)​ ​of​ ​electron​ ​configuration
Valence​ ​electrons​ ​and​ ​bonding
-for​ ​metalloids,​ ​last​ ​s​ ​block​ ​or​ ​d​ ​block​ ​can​ ​give​ ​up​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​different​ ​combinations,
resulting​ ​in​ ​different​ ​charges
Atomic​ ​Radius
-AKA​ ​atomic​ ​size
-electrons​ ​not​ ​in​ ​orbit​ ​around​ ​the​ ​nucleus​ ​so​ ​can’t​ ​find​ ​radius​ ​using​ ​equation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​circle
-Van​ ​der​ ​waals​ ​radius-​ ​measure​ ​how​ ​close​ ​can​ ​put​ ​two​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​same​ ​type​ ​together