APHY 102 Final Exam Study Guide 2026: Comprehensive Anatomy and Physiology Review

What is a hydrogen bond? a) Strong bond between two nonpolar molecules b) Ionic attraction between metal atoms c) Weak attraction between a positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another d) Covalent bond involving shared electrons Rationale: Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between polar molecules like water. Ionic and covalent bonds involve stronger electron interactions and are not the same as hydrogen bonds. What is an ion? a) Neutral atom with equal numbers of protons and electrons b) Atom that shares electrons c) Atom that gains or loses electrons, becoming charged d) Molecule formed by hydrogen bonding Rationale: Ions are charged atoms formed by gaining or losing electrons. The other options describe neutral atoms or molecular interactions. Which best defines a synthesis reaction? a) Two or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger molecule b) Larger molecules are broken into smaller ones c) Atoms are rearranged without bonding d) Parts of molecules are exchanged Rationale: Synthesis builds larger molecules from smaller units. Decomposition breaks molecules down, and exchange reactions swap components. What is a decomposition reaction? a) Substances exchange parts b) Large molecules break down into smaller molecules c) Two small molecules join together d) Reaction that absorbs water Rationale: Decomposition reactions break complex substances into simpler ones. Synthesis is the reverse, and exchange reactions involve swapping parts. What occurs in an exchange reaction? a) Molecules split into atoms b) Parts of molecules trade places c) Molecules combine to form water d) Acids react with metals Rationale: Exchange reactions involve replacing components between molecules. It is neither purely synthesis nor decomposition. What is an acid? a) Substance that absorbs hydrogen ions b) Electrolyte that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) in water c) Molecule that releases hydroxide ions d) Substance that cannot ionize in water Rationale: Acids dissociate to release hydrogen ions. Bases remove H⁺ or release OH⁻, and nonelectrolytes do not ionize. What happens to a cell placed in a hypotonic solution? a) Water moves into the cell, causing it to swell or burst b) Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink c) No net movement of water occurs d) Solutes move into the cell causing plasmolysis Rationale: In a hypotonic environment, water enters the cell, leading to swelling. Hypertonic solutions cause shrinking, while isotonic solutions show no net movement. What is an isotonic solution? a) Solution with more solute than the cell b) Solution with no water molecules c) Solution with the same solute concentration as the cell, causing no net water movement d) Solution that causes cell lysis Rationale: Isotonic solutions maintain equilibrium with no net movement of water. Hypertonic and hypotonic solutions disrupt this balance. Where does glycolysis occur in a cell? a) Mitochondrial matrix b) Inner mitochondrial membrane c) Cytosol (cytoplasm) d) Nucleus Rationale: Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and the ETC in the inner mitochondrial membrane. What is the main purpose of NADH produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle? a) To directly produce ATP b) To break down glucose c) To carry high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain d) To store oxygen in cells Rationale: NADH transports electrons to the electron transport chain to generate ATP. It does not directly make ATP or store oxygen. What is the role of oxygen in aerobic respiration? a) Breaks glucose into pyruvate b) Acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain c) Produces glucose from water d) Converts ATP to ADP Rationale: Oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain, forming water. Without oxygen, the chain stops and ATP production drops. During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur? a) Prophase b) Cytokinesis c) Interphase (S phase) d) Telophase Rationale: DNA replication occurs during the S phase of interphase. Prophase and telophase are mitotic phases. What happens during metaphase of mitosis? a) Chromosomes condense and become visible b) Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles c) Chromosomes line up at the cell’s equatorial plate d) Nuclear membrane reforms Rationale: Metaphase is characterized by chromosomes aligning in the middle of the cell. Separation occurs during anaphase. What is cytokinesis? a) Division of the nucleus b) DNA replication c) Division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells d) Chromosomes becoming visible Rationale: Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division, splitting the cytoplasm. Nuclear division occurs during mitosis. Which statement best describes enzymes? a) They are consumed in chemical reactions b) They work at any temperature and pH c) They are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up d) They provide energy for cellular processes Rationale: Enzymes accelerate reactions and are not consumed. They function best at specific temperature and pH levels. What happens to enzymes at very high temperatures? a) Their activity increases infinitely b) They denature and lose their shape and function c) They produce more substrates d) They become more efficient Rationale: High temperatures disrupt enzyme structure, causing denaturation. This inactivates the enzyme rather than increasing efficiency. What is a base? a) Releases hydrogen ions in water b) Non-electrolyte c) Releases ions that combine with hydrogen ions (H⁺) d) Produces carbon dioxide Rationale: Bases accept hydrogen ions or release ions (like OH⁻) that neutralize acids. What is a salt? a) Only formed by metals b) Product of acid and base reacting to form water and electrolytes c) Non-electrolyte with no ions d) Gas released during reactions Rationale: Salts form from acid-base neutralization. They dissociate into electrolytes in water. What is the pH scale? a) Measures oxygen concentration b) Represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a solution c) Measures temperature d) Measures electrical activity Rationale: pH determines acidity or alkalinity by measuring H⁺ concentration. It is unrelated to temperature or oxygen. What characterizes an acidic solution? a) pH less than 7 with higher H⁺ concentration b) pH of 7 with equal H⁺ and OH⁻ c) pH above 7 d) Contains no ions Rationale: Acidic solutions have a pH under 7. Neutral is pH 7, while basic is above 7. What is dehydration synthesis? a) Reaction that links monomers into polymers by removing water b) Reaction that absorbs water to break polymers c) Formation of ions d) Reaction only in plants Rationale: Dehydration synthesis forms polymers while releasing water. Hydrolysis does the opposite. What are carbohydrates primarily used for in the body? a) Building genetic material b) Providing energy for cellular activities c) Hormone synthesis d) Long-term storage of genetic information Rationale: Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. Proteins provide structure, and nucleic acids store genetic information. Which statement best describes lipids? a) Soluble in water and used for immediate energy b) Insoluble in water and used primarily for long-term energy storage c) Made of amino acids and form enzymes d) Contain nitrogen and store genetic information Rationale: Lipids are water-insoluble molecules used for energy storage and cell membrane structure. They are not composed of amino acids or nucleotides. What are proteins made of? a) Fatty acids b) Monosaccharides c) Amino acids linked by peptide bonds d) Nucleotides Rationale: Proteins are chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. Nucleotides make nucleic acids; fatty acids form fats. What is the function of nucleic acids? a) Provide insulation b) Carry genetic information and control cellular activities c) Break down toxins in cells d) Form cell membranes Rationale: DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information. Lipids form membranes; proteins conduct metabolism. Which of the following is a correct description of triglycerides (fats)? a) Made of one fatty acid and one glycerol b) Made of one glycerol and three fatty acids; used for energy storage c) Made of amino acids d) Insoluble in lipids and water Rationale: Triglycerides consist of glycerol and three fatty acids. They store energy and have more energy than carbohydrates. What is a phospholipid's primary role? a) Store genetic information b) Form cell membranes with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails c) Carry oxygen in the blood d) Speed up chemical reactions Rationale: Phospholipids make up the bilayer of cell membranes. Enzymes (proteins) speed reactions; hemoglobin carries oxygen. What makes steroids structurally unique? a) Long chains of amino acids b) Four connected rings of carbon atoms c) Chains of glucose molecules d) Double-layer phospholipid structure Rationale: Steroids are lipids composed of four fused carbon rings. They are not proteins or carbohydrates. What is the difference between DNA and RNA? a) DNA helps in protein synthesis; RNA stores genes b) DNA stores genetic information; RNA helps in protein synthesis c) Both store genes only d) RNA is double-stranded; DNA is single-stranded Rationale: DNA stores genetic instructions; RNA helps translate them into proteins. DNA is double-stranded; RNA is single-stranded. What is the main function of the cell membrane? a) Regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell b) Produces ATP c) Store genetic information d) Packages proteins for secretion Rationale: The cell membrane controls transport. Mitochondria produce ATP; nucleus stores DNA; Golgi packages proteins. Which best describes the structure of the cell membrane? a) Single layer of proteins b) Double layer of phospholipids with hydrophobic tails inward c) Solid wall of lipids d) Protein-only barrier Rationale: The membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Lipid tails face inward; heads face water