WGU D094: EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY & DEVELOPMENT –
2026/2027 UPDATED OA MASTERY
GUIDE
PART 1: CORE THEORIES & DOMAINS SUMMARY
Domain A: Foundational Theories of Learning & Development
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages: Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs: object permanence), Preoperational
(2–7: symbolic thought, egocentrism), Concrete Operational (7–11: logical reasoning about
concrete objects, conservation), Formal Operational (12+: abstract/hypothetical thinking).
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Emphasizes social interaction in learning. The Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the difference between independent and assisted
performance. Scaffolding is tailored support from a More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO) that is gradually removed. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust
(infancy), Autonomy vs. Shame (toddler), Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool), Industry vs.
Inferiority (school-age), Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence). Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory: Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Self-efficacy (belief in one’s capabilities) influences effort and persistence.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems: Child development is shaped by nested
systems: Microsystem (family, school), Mesosystem (interactions between
microsystems), Exosystem (indirect influences like parents’ workplace), Macrosystem
(cultural values, laws), and Chronosystem (dimension of time, historical events).
Domain B: Cognitive, Linguistic, & Moral Development
Cognitive Milestones: Object permanence (8–12 mos), conservation (age 7+), abstract
reasoning (12+). Language Development: Cooing (2–4 mos), babbling (6 mos), one-word
(12 mos), two-word/telegraphic speech (18–24 mos), complex syntax (3–5 yrs). Kohlberg’s
Moral Stages: Preconventional (obedience/punishment; self-interest), Conventional (good
boy/girl; law and order), Postconventional (social contract; universal ethics). Critiques:
Carol Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s model is male-biased; she proposed an “ethic of care”
focused on relationships and responsibility, often more prevalent in females.
Domain C: Social, Emotional, & Identity Development
Self-concept (knowledge of self) and self-esteem (evaluation of self) develop through
social feedback and mastery experiences. Attachment Theory (Bowlby/Ainsworth):
Secure attachment (responsive caregiver) fosters exploration and trust; insecure types
(avoidant, resistant, disorganized) correlate with later social-emotional difficulties.
, Adolescent Challenges: Identity formation (Erikson’s stage 5) involves exploring
roles/values; peer relationships become central; emotional regulation is challenged by limbic
system development outpacing prefrontal cortex maturation. Modern Risks: Cyberbullying
and social media can exacerbate anxiety, depression, and body image issues; schools must
integrate mental health supports and social-emotional learning (SEL) curricula.
Domain D: Physical & Brain Development
Physical Milestones: Infancy (rapid growth, motor skills), childhood (steady growth, fine
motor refinement), adolescence (puberty, growth spurt). Brain Development:
Neuroplasticity allows the brain to reorganize based on experience. Sensitive periods
are windows of peak responsiveness to environmental input (e.g., language). Prefrontal
cortex matures into mid-20s, governing executive functions (working memory, cognitive
flexibility, inhibitory control). Classroom Implications: Adolescents may struggle with
planning, impulse control, and risk assessment; structured routines, explicit strategy
instruction, and wait time support developing executive function.
Domain E: Learner Diversity & Inclusive Practice
Intelligence Theories: Spearman (g-factor), Gardner (Multiple Intelligences: linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
naturalist), Sternberg (Triarchic: analytical, creative, practical). Diversity Impact: Cultural
background shapes learning styles and communication norms; poverty can affect cognitive
resources via chronic stress; bilingualism enhances executive function. Asset-Based
Approaches: Shift from deficit models (focusing on what students lack) to strength-based
views (honoring funds of knowledge). Neurodiversity (2026/2027 Emphasis):
Recognizes neurological differences (e.g., autism, ADHD, dyslexia) as natural human
variations, not disorders to be “fixed.” Trauma-Informed Practices: Understand that
behavior is communication; prioritize safety, trust, and empowerment. Inclusive
Frameworks: Universal Design for Learning (UDL) provides multiple means of
engagement, representation, and action/expression. Differentiated Instruction (DI)
tailors content, process, and product based on readiness, interest, and learning profile.
Culturally Responsive Teaching validates students’ identities and connects curriculum
to their lives.
Domain F: Motivation, Classroom Management, & Assessment
Motivation Theories: Intrinsic (internal drive) vs. extrinsic (external rewards); Maslow’s
Hierarchy (needs must be met for self-actualization); Attribution Theory (students’ beliefs
about causes of success/failure affect future effort). Classroom Management: Proactive
strategies include clear expectations, positive reinforcement, and routines. Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) uses a tiered framework. Restorative
Practices (2026/2027 Emphasis) repair harm through dialogue rather than punishment.
Assessment: Diagnostic identifies prior knowledge, formative guides instruction (e.g.,
exit tickets), summative evaluates mastery (e.g., final exam). Ethical use requires validity,
reliability, and avoiding bias.
PSYCHOLOGY & DEVELOPMENT –
2026/2027 UPDATED OA MASTERY
GUIDE
PART 1: CORE THEORIES & DOMAINS SUMMARY
Domain A: Foundational Theories of Learning & Development
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages: Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs: object permanence), Preoperational
(2–7: symbolic thought, egocentrism), Concrete Operational (7–11: logical reasoning about
concrete objects, conservation), Formal Operational (12+: abstract/hypothetical thinking).
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Emphasizes social interaction in learning. The Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the difference between independent and assisted
performance. Scaffolding is tailored support from a More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO) that is gradually removed. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust
(infancy), Autonomy vs. Shame (toddler), Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool), Industry vs.
Inferiority (school-age), Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence). Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory: Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Self-efficacy (belief in one’s capabilities) influences effort and persistence.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems: Child development is shaped by nested
systems: Microsystem (family, school), Mesosystem (interactions between
microsystems), Exosystem (indirect influences like parents’ workplace), Macrosystem
(cultural values, laws), and Chronosystem (dimension of time, historical events).
Domain B: Cognitive, Linguistic, & Moral Development
Cognitive Milestones: Object permanence (8–12 mos), conservation (age 7+), abstract
reasoning (12+). Language Development: Cooing (2–4 mos), babbling (6 mos), one-word
(12 mos), two-word/telegraphic speech (18–24 mos), complex syntax (3–5 yrs). Kohlberg’s
Moral Stages: Preconventional (obedience/punishment; self-interest), Conventional (good
boy/girl; law and order), Postconventional (social contract; universal ethics). Critiques:
Carol Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s model is male-biased; she proposed an “ethic of care”
focused on relationships and responsibility, often more prevalent in females.
Domain C: Social, Emotional, & Identity Development
Self-concept (knowledge of self) and self-esteem (evaluation of self) develop through
social feedback and mastery experiences. Attachment Theory (Bowlby/Ainsworth):
Secure attachment (responsive caregiver) fosters exploration and trust; insecure types
(avoidant, resistant, disorganized) correlate with later social-emotional difficulties.
, Adolescent Challenges: Identity formation (Erikson’s stage 5) involves exploring
roles/values; peer relationships become central; emotional regulation is challenged by limbic
system development outpacing prefrontal cortex maturation. Modern Risks: Cyberbullying
and social media can exacerbate anxiety, depression, and body image issues; schools must
integrate mental health supports and social-emotional learning (SEL) curricula.
Domain D: Physical & Brain Development
Physical Milestones: Infancy (rapid growth, motor skills), childhood (steady growth, fine
motor refinement), adolescence (puberty, growth spurt). Brain Development:
Neuroplasticity allows the brain to reorganize based on experience. Sensitive periods
are windows of peak responsiveness to environmental input (e.g., language). Prefrontal
cortex matures into mid-20s, governing executive functions (working memory, cognitive
flexibility, inhibitory control). Classroom Implications: Adolescents may struggle with
planning, impulse control, and risk assessment; structured routines, explicit strategy
instruction, and wait time support developing executive function.
Domain E: Learner Diversity & Inclusive Practice
Intelligence Theories: Spearman (g-factor), Gardner (Multiple Intelligences: linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
naturalist), Sternberg (Triarchic: analytical, creative, practical). Diversity Impact: Cultural
background shapes learning styles and communication norms; poverty can affect cognitive
resources via chronic stress; bilingualism enhances executive function. Asset-Based
Approaches: Shift from deficit models (focusing on what students lack) to strength-based
views (honoring funds of knowledge). Neurodiversity (2026/2027 Emphasis):
Recognizes neurological differences (e.g., autism, ADHD, dyslexia) as natural human
variations, not disorders to be “fixed.” Trauma-Informed Practices: Understand that
behavior is communication; prioritize safety, trust, and empowerment. Inclusive
Frameworks: Universal Design for Learning (UDL) provides multiple means of
engagement, representation, and action/expression. Differentiated Instruction (DI)
tailors content, process, and product based on readiness, interest, and learning profile.
Culturally Responsive Teaching validates students’ identities and connects curriculum
to their lives.
Domain F: Motivation, Classroom Management, & Assessment
Motivation Theories: Intrinsic (internal drive) vs. extrinsic (external rewards); Maslow’s
Hierarchy (needs must be met for self-actualization); Attribution Theory (students’ beliefs
about causes of success/failure affect future effort). Classroom Management: Proactive
strategies include clear expectations, positive reinforcement, and routines. Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) uses a tiered framework. Restorative
Practices (2026/2027 Emphasis) repair harm through dialogue rather than punishment.
Assessment: Diagnostic identifies prior knowledge, formative guides instruction (e.g.,
exit tickets), summative evaluates mastery (e.g., final exam). Ethical use requires validity,
reliability, and avoiding bias.
