COGSCI 180 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Epistemology: How Do We Know What Is True? - Answer -Epistemology: theory of
knowledge, esp w/regard to its methods, validity, scope, and distinction between
justified belief & opinion.
Approach used to discover truth w/regard to questions concerning nature of self - very
different in Eastern contemplative traditions & Western science
- Science uses sensory perception/logical reasoning - scientific method
- Contemplation uses techniques to cultivate clear/stable mind so one can directly
perceive the truth
Scientific versus contemplative approaches - Answer -Similarities:
- Both empirically-based, not on blind adherence to belief/what authorities say
- Conclusions verified through consensual agreement of highly trained investigators to
be considered valid
Differences:
- Science: 3rd person perspective
- Contemplation: 1st person perspective
Common Criticism of Contemplative Approach by Science - Answer -Introspection
objection: sounds like introspection - highly subjective/unreliable − introspection:
observing/reporting mental/emotional processes objectively
Introspection objection: criticism of the contemplative approach - Answer -Sounds like
introspection - highly subjective/unreliable
− Introspection: observing/reporting mental/emotional processes objectively
Introspection used in early psychological experiments in 19th century but discredited,
not considered valid for investigation now
Contemplative answer to introspection objection - Answer -Important distinction
between contemplation/introspection: contemplation requires extensive training of mind
to become stable/clear using specific techniques
Ricard: introspection discredited because participants usually had distracted minds
- "Distraction creates unsteady mind + an untrained mind lacks clarity that allows one to
see what is happening within oneself."
It "feels" different when mind is agitated, distracted, murky vs. when it is stable/clear
☞ Clear/stable mind associated w/inner peace & brings deeper insights into nature of
reality + mind itself
,These various mental states/associated effects delineated precisely within
contemplative traditions
Reproducibility, Consensus, and Reliability - Answer -Reproducibility = criterion in
contemplative approach, just as in scientific approach. There is consensus among
trained contemplatives for conclusions arrived at, not the case for untrained subjects
- Can be compared to process followed by mathematicians who, having undergone
common training, can understand each other as they discuss subject, using same
language, and reach similar insights
− Unless you are trained in mathematics, would be hard to grasp concepts/follow
discussions
In addition, results can be reproduced by a particular investigator @ different points in
time, as well as by other investigators
− That is, insights into nature of reality/mind that are directly perceived when one
stabilizes/clarifies mind can be experienced in meditation
How do you train/how do you know that you are progressing in your training? - Answer
-Training involves applying specific techniques to stabilize/clarify mind + progress
indicated by extent to which you can apply instructions. Also during training, there are
structured dialogues between student & expert (teacher) to monitor student's progress
- Teacher leads dialogue, asking appropriate questions, allows subject to describe
his/her experience in detail
− In Zen/Tibetan Buddhist traditions, for instance, student reports their meditative
experiences to teacher
− On basis of these experiences, qualified teacher can appraise quality of student's
meditative practice and see whether it reflects genuine progress or self-deceptions +
guide student
★ This is function of koans in Zen tradition
Koans - Answer -In Rinzai school, koans test student's progress in Zen practice -
"riddles" that student solves. Ex:
1) What is sound of one hand clapping?
2) What was appearance of your face before your ancestors were born?
Obscure riddles, bewildering dialogues, flagrant contradictions that form koans help
student ground their thinking in reality/break free of conceptual mind, i.e., categorizing,
analyzing ordinary thinking mind
− Related to idea raised in last lecture about potential limitations of "left-brain" logical
self that suppresses more expansive right-brain consciousness
- "The koan provokes, excites, exasperates, and eventually exhausts the mind until it
sees its limitations... Then it counts on a flash of sudden insight to bridge the gap
between second- and first-hand knowledge," Huston Smith
How should koans be answered? - Answer -- All koans answered from personal
experience
,- Koans pondered in meditation/throughout day till answer opens true heart of question
- Traditionally, answers not found in books, not discussed w/others
- Even if you found "correct answer," cheating not possible because each koan has
many answers, both verbal response and effects on mind/emotions
- Answer to koan not verbal response, but how you are responding
- Even wisest Zen teacher cannot tell you your own answer, must find answer for
yourself, will not be answer your conceptual mind can deduce
- Once experienced, answer often life-changing experience, comes w/force that is self-
validating - needs no confirmation from anyone else
So what is the sound of one hand clapping? - Answer -- Correct answer may be
"Depends on what hand is clapping against!" - demonstrates insight into yin/yang,
Gestalt, figure and ground
- Or to face questioner, assume appropriate Buddhist posture, thrust one hand forward
Can conclusions drawn by contemplatives be verified by a third party? - Answer -- Only
if person has training
- Similar process exists in science: if you don't know physics/math, then you trust
experts because assume they are reliable + they agree among themselves after having
carefully verified findings
− However, you know that if you were to train properly in discipline, you could check this
yourself
☞ Anyone who stabilizes/clarifies mind can find out for themselves what other
contemplatives have found/agreed on
Lastly, people in contemplative traditions generally agree that meditation masters
achieve highest levels of realization
- Similar to how there is generally consensus among scientific community regarding
who experts are
Why/how would contemplatives all generally come to a consensus that is correct? -
Answer -Could be argued that contemplatives are all deceiving themselves
− However, Ricard: "Would be strange if whole cohort of people w/sharp acumen who
have refined their introspective faculties to such an extent deluded themselves in
exactly the same way at various times in history and in various places."
In addition, contemplative approach supposedly works because it results in a clear and
stable mind
− Finding that long-term "super-meditators" are neurologically, as well as
psychologically, off-the-charts, on measures of traits like attention, empathy, and
optimism would appear to support that claim
Neuropsychological Research on Long-Term Meditators - Answer -EEG studies by
Richard Davidson: meditation practice associated w/increased left prefrontal activity
- Left prefrontal activity associated w/optimism/feelings of happiness/well-being
, - Early on, Davidson noticed elderly Tibetan monk showed greater predominance in left
prefrontal than any other participant
- Research on long-term meditators provided further confirmatory evidence
- Ex: one meditation adept, Matthieu Ricard, showed increased left pre-frontal cortical
activity 4.5 standard deviations outside standard bell curve
Meditators and fleeting facial expressions - Answer -Paul Ekman also found enhanced
ability to identify microexpressions in meditators
- Series of faces displaying various expressions shown in quick succession
- Target expression onscreen 1/30th of a second
- Participants asked to identify expression
➜ Two experienced Western meditators whom Ekman tested achieved results far better
than 5000 previous participants
- Recognizing fleeting facial expressions associated w/empathy & insight + openness to
new experiences, intellectual curiosity, general reliability/efficiency
- "They do better than police men, lawyers, psychiatrists, customs officials, judges -
even secret service agents." Latter group proven to be most accurate, according to
Ekman
Attentional blink study - Answer -Attentional blink study: participants tested before &
after they completed 3-month mindfulness retreat @ Insight Meditation Society.
Method:
- Nonjudgmental awareness measured using attentional blink paradigm
- Based on idea: if stimulus hijacks our attention, we won't notice others that occur
fraction of second later
- Stream of letters flashed onscreen, one after another, 10/sec: C, P, Q, D, K, L, T, B, X,
V, etc.
- Every now and then, number appears: C, P, Q, D, 3, K, L, 7, T, B, X, V
- Task indicates when number interrupts stream of letters
- If second number follows first within ~ half second or less, most notice 1st number (3)
but literally do not see 2nd (7)
- Reason: when number shows up, excitement causes attention to blink
➜ Extent to which people minimize "blinking" reflects quality of emotional
balance/equanimity
Results:
- Retreatants, unlike controls, showed decrease in attentional blink + 33% greater
detection of second targets
- Follow-up study found significant improvements in attentional performance correlated
w/alterations in brain activity maintained 3 months after end of formal meditation
practice
➜ Mental training results in durable neuropsychological changes
Epistemology: How Do We Know What Is True? - Answer -Epistemology: theory of
knowledge, esp w/regard to its methods, validity, scope, and distinction between
justified belief & opinion.
Approach used to discover truth w/regard to questions concerning nature of self - very
different in Eastern contemplative traditions & Western science
- Science uses sensory perception/logical reasoning - scientific method
- Contemplation uses techniques to cultivate clear/stable mind so one can directly
perceive the truth
Scientific versus contemplative approaches - Answer -Similarities:
- Both empirically-based, not on blind adherence to belief/what authorities say
- Conclusions verified through consensual agreement of highly trained investigators to
be considered valid
Differences:
- Science: 3rd person perspective
- Contemplation: 1st person perspective
Common Criticism of Contemplative Approach by Science - Answer -Introspection
objection: sounds like introspection - highly subjective/unreliable − introspection:
observing/reporting mental/emotional processes objectively
Introspection objection: criticism of the contemplative approach - Answer -Sounds like
introspection - highly subjective/unreliable
− Introspection: observing/reporting mental/emotional processes objectively
Introspection used in early psychological experiments in 19th century but discredited,
not considered valid for investigation now
Contemplative answer to introspection objection - Answer -Important distinction
between contemplation/introspection: contemplation requires extensive training of mind
to become stable/clear using specific techniques
Ricard: introspection discredited because participants usually had distracted minds
- "Distraction creates unsteady mind + an untrained mind lacks clarity that allows one to
see what is happening within oneself."
It "feels" different when mind is agitated, distracted, murky vs. when it is stable/clear
☞ Clear/stable mind associated w/inner peace & brings deeper insights into nature of
reality + mind itself
,These various mental states/associated effects delineated precisely within
contemplative traditions
Reproducibility, Consensus, and Reliability - Answer -Reproducibility = criterion in
contemplative approach, just as in scientific approach. There is consensus among
trained contemplatives for conclusions arrived at, not the case for untrained subjects
- Can be compared to process followed by mathematicians who, having undergone
common training, can understand each other as they discuss subject, using same
language, and reach similar insights
− Unless you are trained in mathematics, would be hard to grasp concepts/follow
discussions
In addition, results can be reproduced by a particular investigator @ different points in
time, as well as by other investigators
− That is, insights into nature of reality/mind that are directly perceived when one
stabilizes/clarifies mind can be experienced in meditation
How do you train/how do you know that you are progressing in your training? - Answer
-Training involves applying specific techniques to stabilize/clarify mind + progress
indicated by extent to which you can apply instructions. Also during training, there are
structured dialogues between student & expert (teacher) to monitor student's progress
- Teacher leads dialogue, asking appropriate questions, allows subject to describe
his/her experience in detail
− In Zen/Tibetan Buddhist traditions, for instance, student reports their meditative
experiences to teacher
− On basis of these experiences, qualified teacher can appraise quality of student's
meditative practice and see whether it reflects genuine progress or self-deceptions +
guide student
★ This is function of koans in Zen tradition
Koans - Answer -In Rinzai school, koans test student's progress in Zen practice -
"riddles" that student solves. Ex:
1) What is sound of one hand clapping?
2) What was appearance of your face before your ancestors were born?
Obscure riddles, bewildering dialogues, flagrant contradictions that form koans help
student ground their thinking in reality/break free of conceptual mind, i.e., categorizing,
analyzing ordinary thinking mind
− Related to idea raised in last lecture about potential limitations of "left-brain" logical
self that suppresses more expansive right-brain consciousness
- "The koan provokes, excites, exasperates, and eventually exhausts the mind until it
sees its limitations... Then it counts on a flash of sudden insight to bridge the gap
between second- and first-hand knowledge," Huston Smith
How should koans be answered? - Answer -- All koans answered from personal
experience
,- Koans pondered in meditation/throughout day till answer opens true heart of question
- Traditionally, answers not found in books, not discussed w/others
- Even if you found "correct answer," cheating not possible because each koan has
many answers, both verbal response and effects on mind/emotions
- Answer to koan not verbal response, but how you are responding
- Even wisest Zen teacher cannot tell you your own answer, must find answer for
yourself, will not be answer your conceptual mind can deduce
- Once experienced, answer often life-changing experience, comes w/force that is self-
validating - needs no confirmation from anyone else
So what is the sound of one hand clapping? - Answer -- Correct answer may be
"Depends on what hand is clapping against!" - demonstrates insight into yin/yang,
Gestalt, figure and ground
- Or to face questioner, assume appropriate Buddhist posture, thrust one hand forward
Can conclusions drawn by contemplatives be verified by a third party? - Answer -- Only
if person has training
- Similar process exists in science: if you don't know physics/math, then you trust
experts because assume they are reliable + they agree among themselves after having
carefully verified findings
− However, you know that if you were to train properly in discipline, you could check this
yourself
☞ Anyone who stabilizes/clarifies mind can find out for themselves what other
contemplatives have found/agreed on
Lastly, people in contemplative traditions generally agree that meditation masters
achieve highest levels of realization
- Similar to how there is generally consensus among scientific community regarding
who experts are
Why/how would contemplatives all generally come to a consensus that is correct? -
Answer -Could be argued that contemplatives are all deceiving themselves
− However, Ricard: "Would be strange if whole cohort of people w/sharp acumen who
have refined their introspective faculties to such an extent deluded themselves in
exactly the same way at various times in history and in various places."
In addition, contemplative approach supposedly works because it results in a clear and
stable mind
− Finding that long-term "super-meditators" are neurologically, as well as
psychologically, off-the-charts, on measures of traits like attention, empathy, and
optimism would appear to support that claim
Neuropsychological Research on Long-Term Meditators - Answer -EEG studies by
Richard Davidson: meditation practice associated w/increased left prefrontal activity
- Left prefrontal activity associated w/optimism/feelings of happiness/well-being
, - Early on, Davidson noticed elderly Tibetan monk showed greater predominance in left
prefrontal than any other participant
- Research on long-term meditators provided further confirmatory evidence
- Ex: one meditation adept, Matthieu Ricard, showed increased left pre-frontal cortical
activity 4.5 standard deviations outside standard bell curve
Meditators and fleeting facial expressions - Answer -Paul Ekman also found enhanced
ability to identify microexpressions in meditators
- Series of faces displaying various expressions shown in quick succession
- Target expression onscreen 1/30th of a second
- Participants asked to identify expression
➜ Two experienced Western meditators whom Ekman tested achieved results far better
than 5000 previous participants
- Recognizing fleeting facial expressions associated w/empathy & insight + openness to
new experiences, intellectual curiosity, general reliability/efficiency
- "They do better than police men, lawyers, psychiatrists, customs officials, judges -
even secret service agents." Latter group proven to be most accurate, according to
Ekman
Attentional blink study - Answer -Attentional blink study: participants tested before &
after they completed 3-month mindfulness retreat @ Insight Meditation Society.
Method:
- Nonjudgmental awareness measured using attentional blink paradigm
- Based on idea: if stimulus hijacks our attention, we won't notice others that occur
fraction of second later
- Stream of letters flashed onscreen, one after another, 10/sec: C, P, Q, D, K, L, T, B, X,
V, etc.
- Every now and then, number appears: C, P, Q, D, 3, K, L, 7, T, B, X, V
- Task indicates when number interrupts stream of letters
- If second number follows first within ~ half second or less, most notice 1st number (3)
but literally do not see 2nd (7)
- Reason: when number shows up, excitement causes attention to blink
➜ Extent to which people minimize "blinking" reflects quality of emotional
balance/equanimity
Results:
- Retreatants, unlike controls, showed decrease in attentional blink + 33% greater
detection of second targets
- Follow-up study found significant improvements in attentional performance correlated
w/alterations in brain activity maintained 3 months after end of formal meditation
practice
➜ Mental training results in durable neuropsychological changes
