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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

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Institution
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Uploaded on
November 26, 2025
Number of pages
264
Written in
2025/2026
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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals




en.wikibooks.org

,August 9, 2015




On the 28th of April 2012 the contents of the English as well as German Wikibooks and Wikipedia
projects were licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license. A
URI to this license is given in the list of figures on page 239. If this document is a derived work
from the contents of one of these projects and the content was still licensed by the project under
this license at the time of derivation this document has to be licensed under the same, a similar or a
compatible license, as stated in section 4b of the license. The list of contributors is included in chapter
Contributors on page 235. The licenses GPL, LGPL and GFDL are included in chapter Licenses on
page 255, since this book and/or parts of it may or may not be licensed under one or more of these
licenses, and thus require inclusion of these licenses. The licenses of the figures are given in the list of
figures on page 239. This PDF was generated by the LATEX typesetting software. The LATEX source
code is included as an attachment (source.7z.txt) in this PDF file. To extract the source from
the PDF file, you can use the pdfdetach tool including in the poppler suite, or the http://www.
pdflabs.com/tools/pdftk-the-pdf-toolkit/ utility. Some PDF viewers may also let you save
the attachment to a file. After extracting it from the PDF file you have to rename it to source.7z.
To uncompress the resulting archive we recommend the use of http://www.7-zip.org/. The LATEX
source itself was generated by a program written by Dirk Hünniger, which is freely available under
an open source license from http://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Benutzer:Dirk_Huenniger/wb2pdf.

,Contents

1 Chemicals 3
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Elements And Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Compounds And Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Organic And Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11 Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12 Test Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.14 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Classification 13
2.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Naming And Classifying Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Naming Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Classification Of Living Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 The Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 The Classification Of Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Test Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 The Cell 21
3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 The Plasma Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 The Cytoplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 The Cell As A Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9 Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10 Test Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38



III

, Contents


3.11 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.12 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4 Body Organisation 43
4.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 The Organisation Of Animal Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Vertebrate Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Body Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5 Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6 Generalised Plan Of The Mammalian Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.7 Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.8 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.9 Directional Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.11 Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.12 Test Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.13 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.14 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5 The Skin 63
5.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 The Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3 Skin Structures Made Of Keratin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4 Skin Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.5 The Skin And Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.6 The Dermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.7 The Skin And Temperature Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.9 Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.10 Test Yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.11 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.12 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6 The Skeleton 79
6.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2 The Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 The Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.4 The Rib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.5 The Forelimb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.6 The Hind Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.7 The Girdles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.8 Categories Of Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.9 Bird Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.10 The Structure Of Long Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.11 Compact Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.12 Spongy Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.13 Bone Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.14 Broken Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94




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