Boek: Psychology, Eight Edition
Auteur: Peter Gray, David F. Bjorklund
Module: Inleiding in de Psychologie
Chapters 9 t/m 16.
, Chapter 9: Memory, Attention & Consciousness
Memory is the change within an individual, brought on by learning.
Learning > Memory > Effect on future behavior.
Consciousness (Awareness) = the experiencing of one’s own mental events in such a manner that
one can report on them to others.
Overview: An information-processing model of the mind
Information-process model contains three types of memory stores: sensory memory, short term
(working) memory and long term memory.
In addition the model specifies control processes ; attention, rehearsal, encoding & retrieval.
Sensory Memory Long-Term Memory Fast and slow thinking: dual
processing theories of cognition
A separate store for each sensory The storage of all that a Processes can be effortful or
system (vision, hearing, etc.) person knows. automatic depending on:
Hold on for information long enough Information is dormant; 1. Conscious awareness;
for it to be analyzed by unconscious only gets active when 2. Interference with other
mental processes and for decision brought to short-term. processes
whether or not to bring information to Long duration, unlimited 3. Improve with practice
the short-term store. capacity. 4. Influenced by individual
Unconscious processes operate to differences.
determine which information to pass
on to working memory.
The Short-term store (working memory) Control processes Fast thinking is unconscious and
Conscious mental work on information Attention: information intuitive (2+2).
brought in from sensory memory and from sensory memory to
long-term memory short-term. Slow thinking is conscious and
Information that is no longer attended Encoding: information deliberate (14 x 39).
to quickly disappears. from short-term to long-
Millers law; capacity of 7 items. term. Stroop interference effect : cannot
Retrieval: from long-term shut off the fast system. Colors in
into short-term. text and color (red, green).
Attention: the portal to consciousness
Two competing needs: the need to not be distracted by irrelevant stimuli and the need to monitor
irrelevant stimuli to shift attention when needed.
Attention as a gate between sensory memory and short-term store.
Preattentive processing = unconscious analysis of sensory information to determine its relevance for
the ongoing task and persons wellbeing.
Cocktail-party phenomenon = ability to pick up relevant information at noisy party.
Inattentional blindness = demonstrated with gorilla in basketball.
Echoic memory = auditory sensory memory.
Iconic memory = visual sensory memory.
Priming = activation, by sensory input, of information that is already stored in long-term memory.
Helps keep our stream of thought running consistent and logic.
Study: unconsciously seeing a duck > primed to paint a duck when asked to paint nature.
, Three conclusions about brain mechanisms for attention:
Stimuli that are not attended to nevertheless activate sensory and perceptual areas of the
brain
Attention magnifies the activity that task-relevant stimuli produce in sensory and perceptual
areas of the brain, and it diminishes activity that task-irrelevant stimuli produce.
Neural mechanisms in anterior portions of the cortex are responsible for control of attention.
Focused attention Preattentive processing Brain mechanisms
Selective listening and viewing Through preattentive Many of the same brain
studies show that we can processing, unattended areas are involved in
effectively focus attention, sensory information can preattentive processing
screening out irrelevant stimuli. affect conscious thought and and conscious processing
We are aware of the physical behavior. of stimuli for meaning.
qualities, but not the meaning of Example is priming; stimuli Attention causes greater
stimuli that we do not attend to/ that are not consciously activation of the relevant
received can activate sensory and perceptual
information in long-term areas.
memory, which can influence
conscious thought.
Shifting attention Preattentive processing is automatic Shifts in attention are
We unconsciously monitor and in some cases obligatory, as controlled by areas of the
unattended stimuli in sensory exemplified by the Stroop interference cerebral cortex anterior
memory so that we can shift our effect. to sensory and perceptual
attention if something significant areas.
occurs. Damage to areas in the
Such monitoring includes left or right hemisphere
preattentive processing for can cause spatial neglect;
meaning unable to ‘see’ in the
contralateral visual field.
Working memory: the active, conscious mind
Model by Alan Baddeley divides working memory into separate, interacting components:
Phonological loop = responsible for holding verbal information (by subvocally repeating it).
Visuospatial sketchpad = responsible for holding visual and spatial information
Central executive = responsible for coordinating the mind’s activities and for bringing new
information into working memory from the sensory and long-term stores.
(short-term) memory span = number of pronounceable items that a person can keep in mind and
report back accurately after a brief delay. (Phonological loop according to Baddeley).
Working memory span = remember a set of items while working with those items.
The mental resources required to process or work on information compete with the mental
resources needed to store information.
Verbal components Working-memory span
The phonological loop maintains verbal Working-memory span is typically two items less than
, information through subvocal repetition and memory span and is a good predictor of performance
permits verbal thought. on higher level cognitive tasks.
Working memory quickly loses information
without active processing.
Executive Functions
Working memory is a part of executive functions; basic and general-purpose information-processing
mechanisms that are important in planning, regulating behavior and performing complex cognitive
tasks.
Executive functions consist of three related subcomponents:
1. Working memory or updating; monitoring and rapidly adding/deleting the contents of
working memory
2. Switching; shifting flexibly between different tasks or mindsets
3. Inhibition; preventing a cognitive or behavioral response or keeping unwanted information
out of the mind.
Executive functions Neurological basis of executive functions
Involve processes of: working The prefrontal cortex serves as a neural hub
memory/updating, switching and inhibition. for executive functions.
Four conclusions about executive functions: Railroad worker Phineas Gage changed
Show both unity and diversity; the three personality due to damage in prefrontal
components correlate but not perfectly. cortex. Difficulty to plan, make decisions and
Have a substantial genetic component regulating emotions and behavior.
Are related to and predictive of important
clinical and societal outcomes (Example; ADHD
related to low inhibition).
Developmentally stable
Memory as the representation of knowledge
Memory = all the information in a person’s mind and the mind’s capacity to store and retrieve
knowledge.
Explicit memory (declarative memory)= conscious thought. Noetic or knowing.
Subclasses include episodic memory and semantic memory.
Implicit memory (nondeclarative) = unconscious, cannot be verbalized. Anoetic or not subject to
conscious attention. Subclasses include classical conditioning, procedural memories and priming.
Procedural memory (subclass of implicit) = motor skills, habits and unconsciously learned rules.
Riding a bike.
Explicit and implicit memory Neuropsychological evidence
Information in explicit (declarative) memory can The studies of H. M; normal capacities to form
be brought into consciousness. Information in and use implicit memories but lack the ability to
implicit (nondeclarative) memory cannot. form new episodic memories.
Explicit memory includes two subclasses: Amnesia = any loss of long-term memory, usually
Auteur: Peter Gray, David F. Bjorklund
Module: Inleiding in de Psychologie
Chapters 9 t/m 16.
, Chapter 9: Memory, Attention & Consciousness
Memory is the change within an individual, brought on by learning.
Learning > Memory > Effect on future behavior.
Consciousness (Awareness) = the experiencing of one’s own mental events in such a manner that
one can report on them to others.
Overview: An information-processing model of the mind
Information-process model contains three types of memory stores: sensory memory, short term
(working) memory and long term memory.
In addition the model specifies control processes ; attention, rehearsal, encoding & retrieval.
Sensory Memory Long-Term Memory Fast and slow thinking: dual
processing theories of cognition
A separate store for each sensory The storage of all that a Processes can be effortful or
system (vision, hearing, etc.) person knows. automatic depending on:
Hold on for information long enough Information is dormant; 1. Conscious awareness;
for it to be analyzed by unconscious only gets active when 2. Interference with other
mental processes and for decision brought to short-term. processes
whether or not to bring information to Long duration, unlimited 3. Improve with practice
the short-term store. capacity. 4. Influenced by individual
Unconscious processes operate to differences.
determine which information to pass
on to working memory.
The Short-term store (working memory) Control processes Fast thinking is unconscious and
Conscious mental work on information Attention: information intuitive (2+2).
brought in from sensory memory and from sensory memory to
long-term memory short-term. Slow thinking is conscious and
Information that is no longer attended Encoding: information deliberate (14 x 39).
to quickly disappears. from short-term to long-
Millers law; capacity of 7 items. term. Stroop interference effect : cannot
Retrieval: from long-term shut off the fast system. Colors in
into short-term. text and color (red, green).
Attention: the portal to consciousness
Two competing needs: the need to not be distracted by irrelevant stimuli and the need to monitor
irrelevant stimuli to shift attention when needed.
Attention as a gate between sensory memory and short-term store.
Preattentive processing = unconscious analysis of sensory information to determine its relevance for
the ongoing task and persons wellbeing.
Cocktail-party phenomenon = ability to pick up relevant information at noisy party.
Inattentional blindness = demonstrated with gorilla in basketball.
Echoic memory = auditory sensory memory.
Iconic memory = visual sensory memory.
Priming = activation, by sensory input, of information that is already stored in long-term memory.
Helps keep our stream of thought running consistent and logic.
Study: unconsciously seeing a duck > primed to paint a duck when asked to paint nature.
, Three conclusions about brain mechanisms for attention:
Stimuli that are not attended to nevertheless activate sensory and perceptual areas of the
brain
Attention magnifies the activity that task-relevant stimuli produce in sensory and perceptual
areas of the brain, and it diminishes activity that task-irrelevant stimuli produce.
Neural mechanisms in anterior portions of the cortex are responsible for control of attention.
Focused attention Preattentive processing Brain mechanisms
Selective listening and viewing Through preattentive Many of the same brain
studies show that we can processing, unattended areas are involved in
effectively focus attention, sensory information can preattentive processing
screening out irrelevant stimuli. affect conscious thought and and conscious processing
We are aware of the physical behavior. of stimuli for meaning.
qualities, but not the meaning of Example is priming; stimuli Attention causes greater
stimuli that we do not attend to/ that are not consciously activation of the relevant
received can activate sensory and perceptual
information in long-term areas.
memory, which can influence
conscious thought.
Shifting attention Preattentive processing is automatic Shifts in attention are
We unconsciously monitor and in some cases obligatory, as controlled by areas of the
unattended stimuli in sensory exemplified by the Stroop interference cerebral cortex anterior
memory so that we can shift our effect. to sensory and perceptual
attention if something significant areas.
occurs. Damage to areas in the
Such monitoring includes left or right hemisphere
preattentive processing for can cause spatial neglect;
meaning unable to ‘see’ in the
contralateral visual field.
Working memory: the active, conscious mind
Model by Alan Baddeley divides working memory into separate, interacting components:
Phonological loop = responsible for holding verbal information (by subvocally repeating it).
Visuospatial sketchpad = responsible for holding visual and spatial information
Central executive = responsible for coordinating the mind’s activities and for bringing new
information into working memory from the sensory and long-term stores.
(short-term) memory span = number of pronounceable items that a person can keep in mind and
report back accurately after a brief delay. (Phonological loop according to Baddeley).
Working memory span = remember a set of items while working with those items.
The mental resources required to process or work on information compete with the mental
resources needed to store information.
Verbal components Working-memory span
The phonological loop maintains verbal Working-memory span is typically two items less than
, information through subvocal repetition and memory span and is a good predictor of performance
permits verbal thought. on higher level cognitive tasks.
Working memory quickly loses information
without active processing.
Executive Functions
Working memory is a part of executive functions; basic and general-purpose information-processing
mechanisms that are important in planning, regulating behavior and performing complex cognitive
tasks.
Executive functions consist of three related subcomponents:
1. Working memory or updating; monitoring and rapidly adding/deleting the contents of
working memory
2. Switching; shifting flexibly between different tasks or mindsets
3. Inhibition; preventing a cognitive or behavioral response or keeping unwanted information
out of the mind.
Executive functions Neurological basis of executive functions
Involve processes of: working The prefrontal cortex serves as a neural hub
memory/updating, switching and inhibition. for executive functions.
Four conclusions about executive functions: Railroad worker Phineas Gage changed
Show both unity and diversity; the three personality due to damage in prefrontal
components correlate but not perfectly. cortex. Difficulty to plan, make decisions and
Have a substantial genetic component regulating emotions and behavior.
Are related to and predictive of important
clinical and societal outcomes (Example; ADHD
related to low inhibition).
Developmentally stable
Memory as the representation of knowledge
Memory = all the information in a person’s mind and the mind’s capacity to store and retrieve
knowledge.
Explicit memory (declarative memory)= conscious thought. Noetic or knowing.
Subclasses include episodic memory and semantic memory.
Implicit memory (nondeclarative) = unconscious, cannot be verbalized. Anoetic or not subject to
conscious attention. Subclasses include classical conditioning, procedural memories and priming.
Procedural memory (subclass of implicit) = motor skills, habits and unconsciously learned rules.
Riding a bike.
Explicit and implicit memory Neuropsychological evidence
Information in explicit (declarative) memory can The studies of H. M; normal capacities to form
be brought into consciousness. Information in and use implicit memories but lack the ability to
implicit (nondeclarative) memory cannot. form new episodic memories.
Explicit memory includes two subclasses: Amnesia = any loss of long-term memory, usually
