Research Skills Summary Book
Manon Kooning, S5221838
Chapter I: Why Science?
3 features of the scientific approach
1. Systematic empiricism learning based on observation
2. Empirical questions questions about the way the world actually is. Therefore, these
questions can be answered by systematically observing it.
3. Public knowledge publishing results so others can verify, replicate, and build on them.
• Science is a social process
• Scientists may have made mistakes
Basic vs applied research
• Basic research = conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and
accurate understanding of human behaviour, without necessarily trying to address any
particular practical problem.
• Applied research = conducted primarily to address some practical problem.
Many papers have both a ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ element to them, and many excellent studies
contribute both to theoretical and practical understanding.
Chapter II: Thinking Like a Researcher
Concepts are generalisable properties or characteristics associated with objects, events, or people.
• The thing you want to study
A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen (or created) to explain a given
phenomenon.
• A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set
of related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may consist of several
underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling.
• The former instance (weight) is a unidimensional construct, while the latter
(communication skill) is a multidimensional construct because it consists of multiple
underlying concepts.
• The distinctions between constructs and concepts are clearer in multi-dimensional
constructs, where the higher order abstraction is called a construct and the lower order
abstractions are called concepts.
1
,When discussing constructs, there are two types of definitions: conceptual and operational
definitions.
• A conceptual definition involves defining a construct on an abstract and theoretical level.
For example, a conceptual definition of perceived service quality could be “the degree
and direction of discrepancy between consumers’ perceptions and expectations [of a
company’s service performance]”
• operational definitions are necessary when it comes to actually collecting and analysing
data. In constructing an operational definition, you have to be very specific on how you
will actually measure your construct.
The key thing to remember about operational definitions is that you have to be very specific about
how you will measure a construct. For instance, the operational definition of a construct such as
temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin
scale.
A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct.
Scientific research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane in which we discuss constructs,
conceptual definitions and propositions in an abstract sense. There’s also the empirical plane. Here,
constructs have operational definitions, are measured by variables, about which we may have
hypotheses.
Variables that explain other variables are called independent variables, those that are explained by
other variables are dependent variables. Variables that are explained by independent variables but
explain dependent variables are mediating variables (or intermediate variables). You can view
mediating variables as variables that help us understand the mechanism/process through which
something works. A moderating variable (or: moderator) is a variable that strengthens or weakens
the effect of another variable, and can sometimes even change the direction of the effect. there
are control variables, which are variables that one has to ‘control for’, that is: take into account in a
scientific study, but are otherwise not of main interest.
Conceptual model
• Each of the relationships is called a proposition.
o A proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that
is stated in a declarative form.
o Because propositions are associations between abstract constructs, they cannot
be tested directly. Instead, they are tested indirectly by examining the
relationship between corresponding measures (variables) of those constructs.
The empirical formulations of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables, are called hypotheses
a good hypothesis specifies the direction and causality (is there an effect?), and it needs to be clear
what the dependent and independent variable is
2
, A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions intended to explain and
predict a phenomenon or behaviour of interest, within certain boundary conditions and assumptions.
Essentially, a theory is a systemic collection of related theoretical propositions.
• Theory is not ‘truth’, there is nothing sacrosanct about any theory, and theories should
not be accepted just because they were proposed by someone.
• A model is a representation of all or part of a system that is constructed to study that
system
o While a theory tries to explain a phenomenon, a model tries to represent a
phenomenon.
The process of theory building or model development may involve inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon or behaviour
based on theoretical or logical reasons and an initial set of premises. In deduction, the
conclusions must be true if the initial premises and reasons are correct.
o Deductive conclusions generally tend to be stronger than inductive conclusions,
but a deductive conclusion based on an incorrect premise is also incorrect.
• Induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on facts or observed evidence.
Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask,
‘Why is this happening?’. In answering this
question, we advance one or more tentative
explanations (hypotheses). We then use deduction
to narrow down the tentative explanations to the
most plausible explanation based on logic and
reasonable premises (based on our understanding
of the phenomenon under study).
nomothetic explanations = seek to explain a class of situations or events rather than one specific
situation or event.
A good theory has four key building blocks:
1. constructs (what concepts are important)
2. propositions (how the concepts are related)
3. logic (why the concepts are related, providing explanation)
4. boundary conditions/assumptions (when, where, and for whom the theory applies).
3
Manon Kooning, S5221838
Chapter I: Why Science?
3 features of the scientific approach
1. Systematic empiricism learning based on observation
2. Empirical questions questions about the way the world actually is. Therefore, these
questions can be answered by systematically observing it.
3. Public knowledge publishing results so others can verify, replicate, and build on them.
• Science is a social process
• Scientists may have made mistakes
Basic vs applied research
• Basic research = conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and
accurate understanding of human behaviour, without necessarily trying to address any
particular practical problem.
• Applied research = conducted primarily to address some practical problem.
Many papers have both a ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ element to them, and many excellent studies
contribute both to theoretical and practical understanding.
Chapter II: Thinking Like a Researcher
Concepts are generalisable properties or characteristics associated with objects, events, or people.
• The thing you want to study
A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen (or created) to explain a given
phenomenon.
• A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set
of related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may consist of several
underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling.
• The former instance (weight) is a unidimensional construct, while the latter
(communication skill) is a multidimensional construct because it consists of multiple
underlying concepts.
• The distinctions between constructs and concepts are clearer in multi-dimensional
constructs, where the higher order abstraction is called a construct and the lower order
abstractions are called concepts.
1
,When discussing constructs, there are two types of definitions: conceptual and operational
definitions.
• A conceptual definition involves defining a construct on an abstract and theoretical level.
For example, a conceptual definition of perceived service quality could be “the degree
and direction of discrepancy between consumers’ perceptions and expectations [of a
company’s service performance]”
• operational definitions are necessary when it comes to actually collecting and analysing
data. In constructing an operational definition, you have to be very specific on how you
will actually measure your construct.
The key thing to remember about operational definitions is that you have to be very specific about
how you will measure a construct. For instance, the operational definition of a construct such as
temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin
scale.
A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct.
Scientific research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane in which we discuss constructs,
conceptual definitions and propositions in an abstract sense. There’s also the empirical plane. Here,
constructs have operational definitions, are measured by variables, about which we may have
hypotheses.
Variables that explain other variables are called independent variables, those that are explained by
other variables are dependent variables. Variables that are explained by independent variables but
explain dependent variables are mediating variables (or intermediate variables). You can view
mediating variables as variables that help us understand the mechanism/process through which
something works. A moderating variable (or: moderator) is a variable that strengthens or weakens
the effect of another variable, and can sometimes even change the direction of the effect. there
are control variables, which are variables that one has to ‘control for’, that is: take into account in a
scientific study, but are otherwise not of main interest.
Conceptual model
• Each of the relationships is called a proposition.
o A proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that
is stated in a declarative form.
o Because propositions are associations between abstract constructs, they cannot
be tested directly. Instead, they are tested indirectly by examining the
relationship between corresponding measures (variables) of those constructs.
The empirical formulations of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables, are called hypotheses
a good hypothesis specifies the direction and causality (is there an effect?), and it needs to be clear
what the dependent and independent variable is
2
, A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions intended to explain and
predict a phenomenon or behaviour of interest, within certain boundary conditions and assumptions.
Essentially, a theory is a systemic collection of related theoretical propositions.
• Theory is not ‘truth’, there is nothing sacrosanct about any theory, and theories should
not be accepted just because they were proposed by someone.
• A model is a representation of all or part of a system that is constructed to study that
system
o While a theory tries to explain a phenomenon, a model tries to represent a
phenomenon.
The process of theory building or model development may involve inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon or behaviour
based on theoretical or logical reasons and an initial set of premises. In deduction, the
conclusions must be true if the initial premises and reasons are correct.
o Deductive conclusions generally tend to be stronger than inductive conclusions,
but a deductive conclusion based on an incorrect premise is also incorrect.
• Induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on facts or observed evidence.
Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask,
‘Why is this happening?’. In answering this
question, we advance one or more tentative
explanations (hypotheses). We then use deduction
to narrow down the tentative explanations to the
most plausible explanation based on logic and
reasonable premises (based on our understanding
of the phenomenon under study).
nomothetic explanations = seek to explain a class of situations or events rather than one specific
situation or event.
A good theory has four key building blocks:
1. constructs (what concepts are important)
2. propositions (how the concepts are related)
3. logic (why the concepts are related, providing explanation)
4. boundary conditions/assumptions (when, where, and for whom the theory applies).
3
