Chapter 1, The origins of the civilisations of Egypt
and Mesopotamia
Just before 3000 BC, next to rivers Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia (current Iraq) and
next to the Nile in Egypt, the first civilisations emerged, characterized by increasing
urbanisation, the birth of states and the invention of writing.
Their foundations had of course been laid over a huge period, called the Stone Age, that has
been divided into Old, Middle and New Stone Age (on the basis of stone implements
produced).
This is the timeline:
● Old Stone Age: until 10000 BC
● Middle Stone Age: 10000 BC - 8000 BC
● New Stone Age: 8000 BC - 3000 BC
As man improved his tools during the Middle Stone Age, he was able to make a more
efficient use of natural resources, which led him to remaining in the same areas for longer
periods of time. He also started cultivating cereals and domesticating animals. These
improvements probably took place firstly in the Near East.
We have two types of agriculture:
● rainfall agriculture → annual consistent precipitation is required, less productive than
irrigation agriculture, present in Iran, N. Iraq, N. Syria
● irrigation agriculture → we mean both artificial and natural irrigation. Mesopotamia
had to practise artificial irrigation because the Tigris and Euphrates flooded before
harvesting time, while the Nile in Egypt flooded before sowing season, so it was
perfect (natural irrigation). People in Mesopotamia also used the sowing plough
Agriculture made people settle in one specific area for a longer period of time, which also led
to specialization in all kinds of crafts (carpentry, writing, metalwork).
So we understand why the first big cities arose close to these rivers.
The core of a Mesopotamian city was the temple, abode of the state deity. In order to satisfy
its needs, the temple engaged in a wide range of activities (agriculture, crafts…) and many
people were involved. The first use of writing, invented between 3400-3200 BC) was made
to count the goods in the temple’s storage. The Mesopotamian script is known as the
“cuneiform” script. The Egyptians used hieroglyphics instead. Only professional scribes were
able to use these two types of writing.
The main contrasts in this period are caused by the differences between sedentary life
(agriculturalists) and nomad life (herders) and not between urban and rural populations.
Agriculturalists were afraid of nomad attacks, nomads needed agriculturalists to exchange
products. These contrasts became a popular theme in the literature of this area.
Geographical conditions of Egypt and Mesopotamia
Egypt → depending on river water because of the absence of rain, poor in resources like
metals and timber. Agriculture was more favourable (flooding from mid-July to
mid-November) and the water was way more clean, that’s why they produced wheat.
Living near the desert, Egyptians were protected from incursion because the land was less
accessible and more isolated. This is why Egypt’s history is more stable and static.
1
,Mesopotamia → depending on river water because of the absence of rain, poor in
resources like metals and timber. Agriculture was less favourable (flooding from March to
May), artificial irrigation was needed and the water condition was worse (Tigris and
Euphrates water is more salty than Nile water) That’s why they produced more barley.
Mesopotamia’s history is characterised by constant invasions of foreign peoples.
Chapter 2, “The third millennium”
The Early Bronze Age (EBA) → 3000-2000 BC
● Egypt
The history of Egypt can be divided in two different ways: in 30 “dynasties” (division
used by the Egyptian priest Manetho who wrote a history of Egypt) or in 3
“kingdoms” (modern division). The three kingdoms alternate with “intermediate
periods”, characterized by political fragmentation, because several local governors
acquired independence in their own provinces. In these periods, many dynasties
governed at the same time, a fact that escaped Manetho, who arranged all the
dynasties in successive order. The three kingdoms are divided in:
● Old Kingdom (ca. 2600-2150)
● Middle Kingdom (ca. 2000-1800)
● New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1100)
The last period (750 - 332 BC) is called the Late Period, where the country was frequently
ruled by foreign dynasties or incorporated in other powerful empires.
Even if Egypt was unified under one ruler already by 3000 BC, the whole history of the
country was to remain characterised by a distinction between Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt.
That’s why the king was called the “Lord of the Double Land” and had two crowns.
It was the kings of the Old Kingdom (especially the 4th dynasty) who commissioned the
construction of pyramids (Djoser, Cheops, Cheffren, Menakure) and people would come
2
,from all over the country to participate in the construction because kingship was seen as a
divine institution. Pyramids and tombs are fundamental for us because they preserved a
wealth of hieroglyphic texts, religious and autobiographical.
The capital during this period was Memphis.
Local governors were granted land as a form of salary, which then passed on from father to
son, along with the office, until the pharaoh had lost all his central authority.
We know that at the end of this period the area flooded by the Nile decreased and famine
started spreading in the country.
● Mesopotamia, Sumer and Akkad
During the third millennium, the Sumerians and the Akkadians brought to fruition the
foundations that had already been laid since the fourth millennium.
Sumerians in particular made the cities great, they made extensive use (and
probably also invented) of the art of writing (keeping accounts in temple and religious
and literary texts). They also developed architecture, religious imagery and literary
styles and laid the groundwork for arithmetic, astronomy, botany and medicine.
Their society was widely specialised in different fields (crafts) thanks to a stable
agricultural system. Their culture was passed on from one generation to the next
over many centuries and also over vast areas across the whole ancient Near East.
This profusion was not achieved by military expansion.
At the beginning, the Sumerian society revolved around the temple, led by a
priest-ruler, but then a second figure emerged and his office was to take care of wars.
Beside the temple, arose a palace. The temple and the palace remained the two
most powerful organisations in Mesopotamia for over 300 years. Sometimes they
had disputes with each other, sometimes they helped each other.
Akkadians are so called after Akkad, the city that became the centre of an empire
around 2300 BC, that was founded by King Sargon.
3
, They started being identified as a separate group only when they began using
cuneiform script for their own language, Old Akkadian. They borrowed much from the
Sumerian culture, but they also kept some aspects of their own, like the deities.
They used to deify their dead kings and they claimed to conquer the whole world, but
eventually they were unable to prevent local revolts and invasions which caused the
downfall of the empire.
After their downfall, there was a revival of Sumerian cities: we call this the Sumerian
renaissance (2100-2000 BC). The Kings of Ur founded a new great empire in
Mesopotamia. Thanks to some tablets that were found, we know that by this time the
palace had eclipsed the temple. The empire of Ur was also overthrown by
invaders, especially by the Amorites and the Elamites.
Chapter 3, “The second millennium”
The Middle Bronze Age (MBA) → 2000 - 1600 BC
● Egypt: the Middle Kingdom (2000-18000) and the Second Intermediate
period (1800-1550)
Shortly before 2000 BC, a dynasty of provincial governors in Thebes restored
unity in Egypt and made Thebes the capital of the new unified realm (which
had its most powerful kings with the 12th dynasty). They expanded their
territory in many directions and they brought the Fayyum Oasis into
cultivation and made that area the centre of their government, as well as
pyramids and temples for the dead. They started choosing their sons as
successors, appointing them as co-regent and putting an end to succession
problems.
The Middle Kingdom was the Golden Age of Egyptian culture (esp. literature)
Around 1800, the king’s power declined, unity was lost and the invasion of the
Hyksos gave start to the Second Intermediate Period.
● Mesopotamia, the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian periods
During the second millennium, we have the birth of two nations that were to dominate
for 1500 years, Assyria and Babylonia, which rose to power thanks to the nomadic
Amorites (who gained control over Assur, Babylon and Mari)
4
and Mesopotamia
Just before 3000 BC, next to rivers Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia (current Iraq) and
next to the Nile in Egypt, the first civilisations emerged, characterized by increasing
urbanisation, the birth of states and the invention of writing.
Their foundations had of course been laid over a huge period, called the Stone Age, that has
been divided into Old, Middle and New Stone Age (on the basis of stone implements
produced).
This is the timeline:
● Old Stone Age: until 10000 BC
● Middle Stone Age: 10000 BC - 8000 BC
● New Stone Age: 8000 BC - 3000 BC
As man improved his tools during the Middle Stone Age, he was able to make a more
efficient use of natural resources, which led him to remaining in the same areas for longer
periods of time. He also started cultivating cereals and domesticating animals. These
improvements probably took place firstly in the Near East.
We have two types of agriculture:
● rainfall agriculture → annual consistent precipitation is required, less productive than
irrigation agriculture, present in Iran, N. Iraq, N. Syria
● irrigation agriculture → we mean both artificial and natural irrigation. Mesopotamia
had to practise artificial irrigation because the Tigris and Euphrates flooded before
harvesting time, while the Nile in Egypt flooded before sowing season, so it was
perfect (natural irrigation). People in Mesopotamia also used the sowing plough
Agriculture made people settle in one specific area for a longer period of time, which also led
to specialization in all kinds of crafts (carpentry, writing, metalwork).
So we understand why the first big cities arose close to these rivers.
The core of a Mesopotamian city was the temple, abode of the state deity. In order to satisfy
its needs, the temple engaged in a wide range of activities (agriculture, crafts…) and many
people were involved. The first use of writing, invented between 3400-3200 BC) was made
to count the goods in the temple’s storage. The Mesopotamian script is known as the
“cuneiform” script. The Egyptians used hieroglyphics instead. Only professional scribes were
able to use these two types of writing.
The main contrasts in this period are caused by the differences between sedentary life
(agriculturalists) and nomad life (herders) and not between urban and rural populations.
Agriculturalists were afraid of nomad attacks, nomads needed agriculturalists to exchange
products. These contrasts became a popular theme in the literature of this area.
Geographical conditions of Egypt and Mesopotamia
Egypt → depending on river water because of the absence of rain, poor in resources like
metals and timber. Agriculture was more favourable (flooding from mid-July to
mid-November) and the water was way more clean, that’s why they produced wheat.
Living near the desert, Egyptians were protected from incursion because the land was less
accessible and more isolated. This is why Egypt’s history is more stable and static.
1
,Mesopotamia → depending on river water because of the absence of rain, poor in
resources like metals and timber. Agriculture was less favourable (flooding from March to
May), artificial irrigation was needed and the water condition was worse (Tigris and
Euphrates water is more salty than Nile water) That’s why they produced more barley.
Mesopotamia’s history is characterised by constant invasions of foreign peoples.
Chapter 2, “The third millennium”
The Early Bronze Age (EBA) → 3000-2000 BC
● Egypt
The history of Egypt can be divided in two different ways: in 30 “dynasties” (division
used by the Egyptian priest Manetho who wrote a history of Egypt) or in 3
“kingdoms” (modern division). The three kingdoms alternate with “intermediate
periods”, characterized by political fragmentation, because several local governors
acquired independence in their own provinces. In these periods, many dynasties
governed at the same time, a fact that escaped Manetho, who arranged all the
dynasties in successive order. The three kingdoms are divided in:
● Old Kingdom (ca. 2600-2150)
● Middle Kingdom (ca. 2000-1800)
● New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1100)
The last period (750 - 332 BC) is called the Late Period, where the country was frequently
ruled by foreign dynasties or incorporated in other powerful empires.
Even if Egypt was unified under one ruler already by 3000 BC, the whole history of the
country was to remain characterised by a distinction between Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt.
That’s why the king was called the “Lord of the Double Land” and had two crowns.
It was the kings of the Old Kingdom (especially the 4th dynasty) who commissioned the
construction of pyramids (Djoser, Cheops, Cheffren, Menakure) and people would come
2
,from all over the country to participate in the construction because kingship was seen as a
divine institution. Pyramids and tombs are fundamental for us because they preserved a
wealth of hieroglyphic texts, religious and autobiographical.
The capital during this period was Memphis.
Local governors were granted land as a form of salary, which then passed on from father to
son, along with the office, until the pharaoh had lost all his central authority.
We know that at the end of this period the area flooded by the Nile decreased and famine
started spreading in the country.
● Mesopotamia, Sumer and Akkad
During the third millennium, the Sumerians and the Akkadians brought to fruition the
foundations that had already been laid since the fourth millennium.
Sumerians in particular made the cities great, they made extensive use (and
probably also invented) of the art of writing (keeping accounts in temple and religious
and literary texts). They also developed architecture, religious imagery and literary
styles and laid the groundwork for arithmetic, astronomy, botany and medicine.
Their society was widely specialised in different fields (crafts) thanks to a stable
agricultural system. Their culture was passed on from one generation to the next
over many centuries and also over vast areas across the whole ancient Near East.
This profusion was not achieved by military expansion.
At the beginning, the Sumerian society revolved around the temple, led by a
priest-ruler, but then a second figure emerged and his office was to take care of wars.
Beside the temple, arose a palace. The temple and the palace remained the two
most powerful organisations in Mesopotamia for over 300 years. Sometimes they
had disputes with each other, sometimes they helped each other.
Akkadians are so called after Akkad, the city that became the centre of an empire
around 2300 BC, that was founded by King Sargon.
3
, They started being identified as a separate group only when they began using
cuneiform script for their own language, Old Akkadian. They borrowed much from the
Sumerian culture, but they also kept some aspects of their own, like the deities.
They used to deify their dead kings and they claimed to conquer the whole world, but
eventually they were unable to prevent local revolts and invasions which caused the
downfall of the empire.
After their downfall, there was a revival of Sumerian cities: we call this the Sumerian
renaissance (2100-2000 BC). The Kings of Ur founded a new great empire in
Mesopotamia. Thanks to some tablets that were found, we know that by this time the
palace had eclipsed the temple. The empire of Ur was also overthrown by
invaders, especially by the Amorites and the Elamites.
Chapter 3, “The second millennium”
The Middle Bronze Age (MBA) → 2000 - 1600 BC
● Egypt: the Middle Kingdom (2000-18000) and the Second Intermediate
period (1800-1550)
Shortly before 2000 BC, a dynasty of provincial governors in Thebes restored
unity in Egypt and made Thebes the capital of the new unified realm (which
had its most powerful kings with the 12th dynasty). They expanded their
territory in many directions and they brought the Fayyum Oasis into
cultivation and made that area the centre of their government, as well as
pyramids and temples for the dead. They started choosing their sons as
successors, appointing them as co-regent and putting an end to succession
problems.
The Middle Kingdom was the Golden Age of Egyptian culture (esp. literature)
Around 1800, the king’s power declined, unity was lost and the invasion of the
Hyksos gave start to the Second Intermediate Period.
● Mesopotamia, the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian periods
During the second millennium, we have the birth of two nations that were to dominate
for 1500 years, Assyria and Babylonia, which rose to power thanks to the nomadic
Amorites (who gained control over Assur, Babylon and Mari)
4
