Psychology 111 Exam Questions with Correct Answers | New Update
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1. William James: founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
2. Sigmund Freud: Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and person-
ality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
3. Wilhelm Wundt: german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology
research laboratory in 1879
4. BF Skinner: Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
5. John Watson: behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation;
famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
6. Max Wertheimer: Gestalt psychologist who argued against dividing human thought and behavior into
discrete structures
7. Any other significant people in the History of Psychology?: Edward Titchener who
focused on structuralism (structure of the mind, sensations, emotions, etc.). Francis Cecil Sumner, who was the first
African American to get a psychology PH.D.
8. What is Psychology? What are the different psychological movements?: **Psy-
chology** is the scientific study of the mind, behavior, and mental processes. It seeks to understand and explain various
aspects of human and animal behavior, cognition, emotion, and experience. Psychologists use research methods to
investigate and analyze a wide range of topics, including memory, perception, learning, motivation, social interaction,
mental disorders, and more. The field of psychology encompasses various sub-disciplines and approaches, allowing
researchers to explore human and animal behavior from different angles.
There have been several **psychological movements** or schools of thought throughout the history of psychology.
These movements represent different perspectives and approaches to understanding the mind and behavior. Some of
the major psychological movements include:
1. **Structuralism:** This movement, led by Wilhelm Wundt, focused on analyzing the basic components or structures
of conscious experience. Structuralists used methods like introspection to study mental processes.
2. **Functionalism:** Functionalists, such as William James, emphasized the study of how mental processes and be-
haviors function to adapt individuals to their environments. They were interested in the practical aspects of psychology.
3. **Behaviorism:** Behaviorism, associated with figures like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasized the study
of observable behaviors and how they are influenced by the environment. Behaviorism rejected the study of mental
processes.
4. **Gestalt Psychology:** Gestalt psychologists, like Max Wertheimer, focused on the study of perception, emphasizing
how individuals organize sensory information into meaningful wholes or patterns.
, Psychology 111 Exam Questions with Correct Answers | New Update
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5. **Psychoanalysis:** Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, which delved into the unconscious mind and the role
of unconscious processes in human be
9. Define and give an example of : Empirical (also empiricism): **Empirical** and
**empiricism** are terms related to the philosophy of knowledge and the scientific method. Empirical knowledge is
based on observation, sensory experience, and direct evidence from the physical world. Empiricism is a philosophical
approach that asserts that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and empirical evidence.
**Example:**
In a scientific study examining the effects of a new drug on a particular medical condition, researchers collect empirica
data by conducting experiments. They administer the drug to a group of patients and compare their health outcomes to
those of a control group. The data obtained from observations, measurements, and test results are considered empirica
evidence. The conclusions drawn from this empirical evidence, such as whether the drug is effective in treating the
condition, are based on direct observation and sensory experience and are in line with empiricist principles. Empirica
evidence forms the basis for scientific knowledge and the development of theories in fields like medicine, psychology,
and the natural sciences.
10. Define and give an example of : Falsifiability (also falsifiable or Falsify): **Fal-
sifiability** is a key concept in science and philosophy of science. It refers to the capacity of a hypothesis, theory, or
statement to be tested and potentially proven false through empirical observation or experimentation. In other words,
a falsifiable claim is one that can be subjected to evidence or observations that could demonstrate it to be incorrect.
**Example:**
Claim: "All swans are white."
This claim is falsifiable because you can test it by observing swans. If you find a single swan that is not white (e.g., a
black swan), the claim is falsified. The ability to potentially find a non-white swan provides a way to test and challenge
the claim's accuracy.
In contrast, an unfalsifiable claim, such as "All swans are magical," cannot be tested or proven false through empirical
means because it lacks specific, observable criteria. Falsifiability is a fundamental principle in the scientific method
because scientific theories and hypotheses are expected to be testable and subject to possible refutation through
experimentation and observation. It distinguishes scientific claims from non-scientific or pseudoscientific claims, which
may be untestable or unverifiable.
11. Define and give an example of : Inductive Reasoning: **Inductive reasoning** is a type of
logical thinking that involves making generalizations based on specific observations or evidence. In inductive reasoning,
one starts with specific observations or examples and uses them to form a broader, more generalized conclusion. It's
a way of moving from particular instances to broader, more abstract principles or hypotheses.
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**Example:**
Observation 1: Every swan I have seen in the park is white.
Observation 2: Every swan in the lake near my house is white.
Observation 3: All the swans in a nearby pond are also white.
Inductive Conclusion: All swans are white.
In this example, the generalization that "all swans are white" is derived from multiple specific observations of white
swans. While inductive reasoning can provide strong evidence for a conclusion, it doesn't guarantee that the conclusion
is universally true, as it's based on a limited set of observations. In this case, the conclusion could be falsified if someone
were to find a non-white swan. Inductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific investigations, data analysis, and
everyday decision-making.
12. Define and give an example of : Deductive Reasoning: **Deductive reasoning** is a
logical process in which a specific conclusion is drawn from a general premise or set of premises. It moves from a
general statement or hypothesis to a specific, logically derived conclusion. Deductive reasoning is often used to test
the validity of arguments and can be thought of as a "top-down" approach to reasoning.
**Example:**
Premise 1: All humans are mortal. (General premise)
Premise 2: Socrates is a human. (Specific information)
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Specific conclusion)
In this example, the deductive reasoning process starts with the general premise that "all humans are mortal." The
second premise provides specific information that Socrates is a human. From these premises, the specific conclusion
that "Socrates is mortal" is logically derived. Deductive reasoning ensures that if the premises are true, the conclusion
must also be true. It is often used in mathematics, philosophy, formal logic, and scientific hypothesis testing to
determine the validity of arguments and theories.
13. Define and give an example of : Probability Value (p-value): A **Probability Value
(p-value)** is a statistical measure that helps assess the strength of evidence against a null hypothesis in a hypothesis
test. It quantifies the probability of obtaining the observed results (or more extreme results) if the null hypothesis were
true. In hypothesis testing, a smaller p-value suggests stronger evidence against the null hypothesis, while a larger
p-value implies weaker evidence.
**Example:** Suppose a pharmaceutical company is testing a new drug's effectiveness in lowering blood pressure. The
null hypothesis (H0) in this case might state that the drug has no effect, and the alternative hypothesis (Ha) asserts that
the drug does lower blood pressure. After conducting a clinical trial, the researchers analyze the data and calculate a
p-value.
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- If the p-value is very small, such as p < 0.05 (typically chosen significance level), it suggests strong evidence against
the null hypothesis. In this case, the researchers might conclude that the drug is effective in lowering blood pressure.
- If the p-value is relatively large, such as p > 0.05, it suggests weak evidence against the null hypothesis. In this case,
the researchers might fail to reject the null hypothesis, indicating that there is not enough evidence to conclude that
the drug is effective in lowering blood pressure.
Researchers often set a predetermined significance level (alpha) to determine the threshold for statistical significance,
such as 0.05, and compare the calculated p-value to alpha. If the p-value is less than or equal to alpha, the null
hypothesis is typically rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The p-value is a crucial tool in statistical hypothesis
testing for drawing conclusions about the effects of treatments, interventions, or changes in various research fields.
14. Define and give an example of : Objective: **Objective** refers to something that is not
influenced by personal opinions, emotions, or biases, and is instead based on factual, observable information. Objective
information is typically independent of individual interpretation and should be the same for anyone who observes or
measures it.
**Example:** In a scientific experiment, the measurement of temperature using a thermometer is an objective process.
The thermometer provides an objective reading in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, which is not influenced by personal
opinions or feelings. If the thermometer reads 25 degrees Celsius, it is an objective and consistent measurement that
should be the same for any individual using the same thermometer. Objective data, such as temperature readings, are
vital in scientific research because they allow for replicable and verifiable results, reducing the influence of subjectivity
or bias in the findings.
15. Define and give an example of : Subjective: **Subjective** refers to something that is
influenced by personal opinions, feelings, or biases, rather than being purely objective or based on factual, observable
information. Subjectivity implies a degree of individual interpretation, and what is considered subjective can vary from
one person to another.
**Example:** Art appreciation is often subjective. When looking at a painting, different people may have varying
interpretations and emotional responses to the artwork. What one person sees as a powerful and moving piece of
art, another may view as unremarkable or unimpressive. These judgments are influenced by the viewer's subjective
perceptions, personal tastes, and emotions. Art critics and enthusiasts often engage in discussions where subjective
opinions about an artwork's meaning and value play a significant role in shaping their assessments.
16. Define and give an example of : Type I Error: **Type I Error** is a statistical and research
concept that occurs when a null hypothesis that is true is incorrectly rejected. In other words, it is a false positive result
where a researcher or test incorrectly concludes that there is an effect or difference when there is none. Type I Errors
are also known as "false positives."
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_i3ifvf
1. William James: founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
2. Sigmund Freud: Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and person-
ality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
3. Wilhelm Wundt: german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology
research laboratory in 1879
4. BF Skinner: Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
5. John Watson: behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation;
famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
6. Max Wertheimer: Gestalt psychologist who argued against dividing human thought and behavior into
discrete structures
7. Any other significant people in the History of Psychology?: Edward Titchener who
focused on structuralism (structure of the mind, sensations, emotions, etc.). Francis Cecil Sumner, who was the first
African American to get a psychology PH.D.
8. What is Psychology? What are the different psychological movements?: **Psy-
chology** is the scientific study of the mind, behavior, and mental processes. It seeks to understand and explain various
aspects of human and animal behavior, cognition, emotion, and experience. Psychologists use research methods to
investigate and analyze a wide range of topics, including memory, perception, learning, motivation, social interaction,
mental disorders, and more. The field of psychology encompasses various sub-disciplines and approaches, allowing
researchers to explore human and animal behavior from different angles.
There have been several **psychological movements** or schools of thought throughout the history of psychology.
These movements represent different perspectives and approaches to understanding the mind and behavior. Some of
the major psychological movements include:
1. **Structuralism:** This movement, led by Wilhelm Wundt, focused on analyzing the basic components or structures
of conscious experience. Structuralists used methods like introspection to study mental processes.
2. **Functionalism:** Functionalists, such as William James, emphasized the study of how mental processes and be-
haviors function to adapt individuals to their environments. They were interested in the practical aspects of psychology.
3. **Behaviorism:** Behaviorism, associated with figures like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasized the study
of observable behaviors and how they are influenced by the environment. Behaviorism rejected the study of mental
processes.
4. **Gestalt Psychology:** Gestalt psychologists, like Max Wertheimer, focused on the study of perception, emphasizing
how individuals organize sensory information into meaningful wholes or patterns.
, Psychology 111 Exam Questions with Correct Answers | New Update
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_i3ifvf
5. **Psychoanalysis:** Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, which delved into the unconscious mind and the role
of unconscious processes in human be
9. Define and give an example of : Empirical (also empiricism): **Empirical** and
**empiricism** are terms related to the philosophy of knowledge and the scientific method. Empirical knowledge is
based on observation, sensory experience, and direct evidence from the physical world. Empiricism is a philosophical
approach that asserts that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and empirical evidence.
**Example:**
In a scientific study examining the effects of a new drug on a particular medical condition, researchers collect empirica
data by conducting experiments. They administer the drug to a group of patients and compare their health outcomes to
those of a control group. The data obtained from observations, measurements, and test results are considered empirica
evidence. The conclusions drawn from this empirical evidence, such as whether the drug is effective in treating the
condition, are based on direct observation and sensory experience and are in line with empiricist principles. Empirica
evidence forms the basis for scientific knowledge and the development of theories in fields like medicine, psychology,
and the natural sciences.
10. Define and give an example of : Falsifiability (also falsifiable or Falsify): **Fal-
sifiability** is a key concept in science and philosophy of science. It refers to the capacity of a hypothesis, theory, or
statement to be tested and potentially proven false through empirical observation or experimentation. In other words,
a falsifiable claim is one that can be subjected to evidence or observations that could demonstrate it to be incorrect.
**Example:**
Claim: "All swans are white."
This claim is falsifiable because you can test it by observing swans. If you find a single swan that is not white (e.g., a
black swan), the claim is falsified. The ability to potentially find a non-white swan provides a way to test and challenge
the claim's accuracy.
In contrast, an unfalsifiable claim, such as "All swans are magical," cannot be tested or proven false through empirical
means because it lacks specific, observable criteria. Falsifiability is a fundamental principle in the scientific method
because scientific theories and hypotheses are expected to be testable and subject to possible refutation through
experimentation and observation. It distinguishes scientific claims from non-scientific or pseudoscientific claims, which
may be untestable or unverifiable.
11. Define and give an example of : Inductive Reasoning: **Inductive reasoning** is a type of
logical thinking that involves making generalizations based on specific observations or evidence. In inductive reasoning,
one starts with specific observations or examples and uses them to form a broader, more generalized conclusion. It's
a way of moving from particular instances to broader, more abstract principles or hypotheses.
, Psychology 111 Exam Questions with Correct Answers | New Update
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**Example:**
Observation 1: Every swan I have seen in the park is white.
Observation 2: Every swan in the lake near my house is white.
Observation 3: All the swans in a nearby pond are also white.
Inductive Conclusion: All swans are white.
In this example, the generalization that "all swans are white" is derived from multiple specific observations of white
swans. While inductive reasoning can provide strong evidence for a conclusion, it doesn't guarantee that the conclusion
is universally true, as it's based on a limited set of observations. In this case, the conclusion could be falsified if someone
were to find a non-white swan. Inductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific investigations, data analysis, and
everyday decision-making.
12. Define and give an example of : Deductive Reasoning: **Deductive reasoning** is a
logical process in which a specific conclusion is drawn from a general premise or set of premises. It moves from a
general statement or hypothesis to a specific, logically derived conclusion. Deductive reasoning is often used to test
the validity of arguments and can be thought of as a "top-down" approach to reasoning.
**Example:**
Premise 1: All humans are mortal. (General premise)
Premise 2: Socrates is a human. (Specific information)
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Specific conclusion)
In this example, the deductive reasoning process starts with the general premise that "all humans are mortal." The
second premise provides specific information that Socrates is a human. From these premises, the specific conclusion
that "Socrates is mortal" is logically derived. Deductive reasoning ensures that if the premises are true, the conclusion
must also be true. It is often used in mathematics, philosophy, formal logic, and scientific hypothesis testing to
determine the validity of arguments and theories.
13. Define and give an example of : Probability Value (p-value): A **Probability Value
(p-value)** is a statistical measure that helps assess the strength of evidence against a null hypothesis in a hypothesis
test. It quantifies the probability of obtaining the observed results (or more extreme results) if the null hypothesis were
true. In hypothesis testing, a smaller p-value suggests stronger evidence against the null hypothesis, while a larger
p-value implies weaker evidence.
**Example:** Suppose a pharmaceutical company is testing a new drug's effectiveness in lowering blood pressure. The
null hypothesis (H0) in this case might state that the drug has no effect, and the alternative hypothesis (Ha) asserts that
the drug does lower blood pressure. After conducting a clinical trial, the researchers analyze the data and calculate a
p-value.
, Psychology 111 Exam Questions with Correct Answers | New Update
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_i3ifvf
- If the p-value is very small, such as p < 0.05 (typically chosen significance level), it suggests strong evidence against
the null hypothesis. In this case, the researchers might conclude that the drug is effective in lowering blood pressure.
- If the p-value is relatively large, such as p > 0.05, it suggests weak evidence against the null hypothesis. In this case,
the researchers might fail to reject the null hypothesis, indicating that there is not enough evidence to conclude that
the drug is effective in lowering blood pressure.
Researchers often set a predetermined significance level (alpha) to determine the threshold for statistical significance,
such as 0.05, and compare the calculated p-value to alpha. If the p-value is less than or equal to alpha, the null
hypothesis is typically rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The p-value is a crucial tool in statistical hypothesis
testing for drawing conclusions about the effects of treatments, interventions, or changes in various research fields.
14. Define and give an example of : Objective: **Objective** refers to something that is not
influenced by personal opinions, emotions, or biases, and is instead based on factual, observable information. Objective
information is typically independent of individual interpretation and should be the same for anyone who observes or
measures it.
**Example:** In a scientific experiment, the measurement of temperature using a thermometer is an objective process.
The thermometer provides an objective reading in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, which is not influenced by personal
opinions or feelings. If the thermometer reads 25 degrees Celsius, it is an objective and consistent measurement that
should be the same for any individual using the same thermometer. Objective data, such as temperature readings, are
vital in scientific research because they allow for replicable and verifiable results, reducing the influence of subjectivity
or bias in the findings.
15. Define and give an example of : Subjective: **Subjective** refers to something that is
influenced by personal opinions, feelings, or biases, rather than being purely objective or based on factual, observable
information. Subjectivity implies a degree of individual interpretation, and what is considered subjective can vary from
one person to another.
**Example:** Art appreciation is often subjective. When looking at a painting, different people may have varying
interpretations and emotional responses to the artwork. What one person sees as a powerful and moving piece of
art, another may view as unremarkable or unimpressive. These judgments are influenced by the viewer's subjective
perceptions, personal tastes, and emotions. Art critics and enthusiasts often engage in discussions where subjective
opinions about an artwork's meaning and value play a significant role in shaping their assessments.
16. Define and give an example of : Type I Error: **Type I Error** is a statistical and research
concept that occurs when a null hypothesis that is true is incorrectly rejected. In other words, it is a false positive result
where a researcher or test incorrectly concludes that there is an effect or difference when there is none. Type I Errors
are also known as "false positives."
