Issues and debates
Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek 1988 proposed there are 2 difference ways that theories may be biased.
Gender bias The differential treatment/representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real
differences
Alpha bias A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, resulting in devalue of one gender in
comparison to the other.
- Ex. Freud: back then men were more educated and powerful than women who were seen inferior to
men. Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity.
- Josselson 1988 pointed out “In this theory, women are seen as being inferior to men because they are
jealous of men’s penises (penis envy) because women don’t go through Oedipus conflict (castration
anxiety). Because the superego develops this conflict, women therefore must morally be inferior
because they have a weaker identification with their mothers”
Androcentrism Research centred/focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.
- Almost all psychologists were and are men, hence its theories tend to come from a male-perspective
- It may result in either beta or alpha bias
- Ex. Asch’s Experiment had 120 male participants and applied results to women too.
Gynocentrism Research centred on women
Beta bias It minimises difference, so women’s needs are ignored.
- Ex. stress research (fight-or-flight response) was based on male responses and then assumed that
women respond in a similar way.
- Shelley Taylor et al 2000 challenged this by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-
befriend response at times of stress which is adaptive because it ensures the survival of their offspring
By ignoring the differences between the sexes, the female behaviour went undiscovered and meant the
stress response wasn’t fully understood.
Universality The aim to develop theories that apply to all people which may include real differences.
Evaluation:
- One way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective (Carol Gilligan). It agrees that there are real
biological differences between the sexes, but socially determined stereotypes can cause greater damage and
create a false image. A way to battle this is to provide more opportunities and support for women.
o Ex. Eagly 1978 claimed that women are less effective leaders than men, so this idea should be used to
develop training programs and train women to become effective leaders. This is an example of how feminist
psychology seeks to find a way to greater equality.
- Bias in research methods:
o Single-sex samples, male-only experimenters (risk of androcentric perspective)
o Ex. a meta-analysis by Eagly and Johnson 1990 noted that studies in real settings found women and men were
judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings, so the way we collect data about gender
creates a false picture of male-female differences.
- A way to counter gender bias is to develop theories that emphasis value of women AND the differences
between the 2 sexes.
o Ex. Cornwell et al 2013 suggests that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, this idea
changes preconceptions and over-values women.
- Avoiding a beta bias: equal rights may disadvantage women because they have different needs (maternity leave,
breastfeeding, etc.)
- Assumptions need to be examined: gender bias are unchallenged in theories.
o Ex. Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portray women as picky and males as the ones who compete to be
chosen. However, it has been recognised that women are equally aggressive/competitive when the need
arises.
o Ex. DNA evidence supports the idea of females mating with multiple males, putting females in competition
with other females (Vernimmen, 2015). This shows that it’s important to challenge gender research to ensure
that research portrays a valid picture of women.
Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek 1988 proposed there are 2 difference ways that theories may be biased.
Gender bias The differential treatment/representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real
differences
Alpha bias A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, resulting in devalue of one gender in
comparison to the other.
- Ex. Freud: back then men were more educated and powerful than women who were seen inferior to
men. Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity.
- Josselson 1988 pointed out “In this theory, women are seen as being inferior to men because they are
jealous of men’s penises (penis envy) because women don’t go through Oedipus conflict (castration
anxiety). Because the superego develops this conflict, women therefore must morally be inferior
because they have a weaker identification with their mothers”
Androcentrism Research centred/focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.
- Almost all psychologists were and are men, hence its theories tend to come from a male-perspective
- It may result in either beta or alpha bias
- Ex. Asch’s Experiment had 120 male participants and applied results to women too.
Gynocentrism Research centred on women
Beta bias It minimises difference, so women’s needs are ignored.
- Ex. stress research (fight-or-flight response) was based on male responses and then assumed that
women respond in a similar way.
- Shelley Taylor et al 2000 challenged this by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-
befriend response at times of stress which is adaptive because it ensures the survival of their offspring
By ignoring the differences between the sexes, the female behaviour went undiscovered and meant the
stress response wasn’t fully understood.
Universality The aim to develop theories that apply to all people which may include real differences.
Evaluation:
- One way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective (Carol Gilligan). It agrees that there are real
biological differences between the sexes, but socially determined stereotypes can cause greater damage and
create a false image. A way to battle this is to provide more opportunities and support for women.
o Ex. Eagly 1978 claimed that women are less effective leaders than men, so this idea should be used to
develop training programs and train women to become effective leaders. This is an example of how feminist
psychology seeks to find a way to greater equality.
- Bias in research methods:
o Single-sex samples, male-only experimenters (risk of androcentric perspective)
o Ex. a meta-analysis by Eagly and Johnson 1990 noted that studies in real settings found women and men were
judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings, so the way we collect data about gender
creates a false picture of male-female differences.
- A way to counter gender bias is to develop theories that emphasis value of women AND the differences
between the 2 sexes.
o Ex. Cornwell et al 2013 suggests that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, this idea
changes preconceptions and over-values women.
- Avoiding a beta bias: equal rights may disadvantage women because they have different needs (maternity leave,
breastfeeding, etc.)
- Assumptions need to be examined: gender bias are unchallenged in theories.
o Ex. Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portray women as picky and males as the ones who compete to be
chosen. However, it has been recognised that women are equally aggressive/competitive when the need
arises.
o Ex. DNA evidence supports the idea of females mating with multiple males, putting females in competition
with other females (Vernimmen, 2015). This shows that it’s important to challenge gender research to ensure
that research portrays a valid picture of women.
