Functionalist theory of religion: Evaluate the view that the main function of religion is to promote social
cohesion (20 marks)
Intro To functionalists, religion is an important part of society as it helps integrate people together by
sharing common beliefs, morals, and opinions. This creates a value consensus in society (people
sharing the same values) and social solidarity/cohesion in society. Religion helps maintain the same
values and social norms held collectively by all in society, which is important for maintaining social
control and order in society. So the contribution of religion in society and to the individual is both
positive and beneficial ultimately promoting social cohesion.
P1 POINT:
Functionalists like Durkheim argue that religions main function is to promote social cohesion/social
solidarity.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Durkeim conducted a secondary analysis of the role and function of religion in a primitive aboriginal
arunta tribe in the trobriand islands.
- Totem
Members of the tribe would worship a totem (sacred symbol), allowing rituals and collective worship
to take place. Integrating group to a shared identity.
- Sacred and profane
The totem, places and other rituals were viewed by the tribe as being sacred (a special meaning) and
anything that was not connected to the totem was seen as profane – (not sacred), such as everyday
activity. Sacred objects reinforce collective consciousness.
- Worshipping of society
The tribe as a ‘group’ exists because of the totem. The collective worship around the totem is really
worshipping of the tribe itself. Unconsciously worshipping group identity.
EVALUATION:
- Methodical flaws in Durkheim’s research: only studied a few Aboriginal tribes which meant
that a) his sample was small, non- representative, hard to generalise his findings to society
as a whole; b) issue of applying his study of a primitive tribe to a large diverse modern
society; c) research findings are based on secondary sources -errors eg bias and
misinterpretation.
- Alternate perspective: Marxists- accept the functionalist view that religion can promote
social stability. But do not see it as beneficial for society as a whole. Marxists see religion as
benefiting the ruling class.
LINK: Durkheim's research supports the view that the main function of religion is to promote social
cohesion with his focus on symbols and objects creating a ‘group’ identity ultimately reinforcing a
collective consciousness.
P2 POINT:
Functionalists like Malinowski and Parson’s argue that religion’s main function is social cohesion that
manifests through its psychological function.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Malinowski’s theory on the role of religion was based on a study of a small- scale tribal society in the
Trobriand Islands.
- In times of uncertainty/ risk
Found that fishing in the lagoon was not preceded by rituals (no risk) but fishing in the open sea,
amid conditions of uncertainty and risk, was always preceded by rituals.
This led him to believe religion helps provide security and explanations in times of uncertainty and
crisis (unpredictable or uncontrollable events) e.g. death, illness, unemployment etc. Religious
explanations help produce confidence and a feeling of control in times of crisis and fear.
- Anomie - Parsons
Argues religion helps deal with ‘life crisis’ which would otherwise lead to anomie (break down
of norms of behaviour) that can threaten stability and order in society. Religion gives meaning to
ultimate questions (e.g. life after death) and to the meaningless and inexplicable suffering and evil
(e.g. cancer in babies). Belief in concepts such as immortality, heaven, funeral ceremonies, helps in
the stability of a healthy society, as it provides meaning to such events.
EVALUATION:
- Methodological flaws in Malinowski’s research: study was carried out in the 1950’s on a
small scale non-literate Trobriand Islanders sample. Research is non-representative and not
, applicable to modern complex industrialised societies. Can’t generalise the research findings
beyond the tribe the research was based on.
- Alternate perspective: Feminists- accept the functionalist view that religion can promote
social stability. But do not see it as beneficial for society as a whole. Feminists see religion
as reinforcing the patriarchy.
LINK: Parsons theories support the functionalist idea that religions main function is to promote social
cohesion. His topic focus on meaning behind action explains the importance of collective belief for
both anomie prevention and security in times of unease.
P3 POINT:
Neo-Functionalists like Bellah argue that the main function of religion is social cohesion; however
this social cohesion can survive without traditional religion.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Civil religion - Bellah.
- Loss of religion
The analysis of American society argues that religious beliefs will eventually die as society becomes
more secular and more diversified.
- Rise in civil religion
Argues that certain social activities perform the same functions of uniting people together just like
religion has done (civil religion). These are non-religious events, in which people are united by a faith
in their shared nationalism which is expressed through ritual, ceremonies and beliefs (e.g. royal
weddings, memorial days, flag waving, and national team sport) which help integrate its members in
society in a similar way to that of religion. This unity of society can be achieved by civil religion.
EVALUATION:
- The growth of New Age Movements: suggests people have become disillusioned by
institutional faiths, as they may no longer provide an adequate explanation and security, as
suggested by Malinowski and Parsons. People now seek other forms to help with a life
crisis, such as an emphasis on spirituality. This would suggest the functionalist view that
mainstream religion provides meaning and emotional support in a modern society may to
some extent no longer be valid.
- Alternate perspective: Postmodernists - see globalisation as a factor of secularisation and
especially in the west. Would view functionalist perspective as outdated.
LINK: Neo- functionalist Bellah, also agrees that the main function of religion is social cohesion yet,
unlike Durkheim and Parsons, through their research into civil religions it is clear that this social
cohesion does not rely on traditional religion.
Concl In conclusion, in a contemporary society characterised by pluralism, globalisation and - in the west-
secularisation, the idea that religions main function is to promote social cohesion is not convincing.
Religion today is much more a source of identity and difference than it is a source of consensus, and
postmodernist theories lead us to re-evaluate the functions of religion in a postmodern world.
,Marxist theory of religion: Evaluate the Marxist view of religion (20 marks)
Intro Marxists see capitalist society as made up of two conflicting classes: the ruling class (bourgeoisie)
and the working class (proletariat). Marxists believed that the working class will eventually be aware
of their exploitation and rise up to overthrow the ruling class and replace capitalism with a classless
society where everyone is equal and exploitation is removed (utopian society). However, religion
prevents this from occurring and helps to continue reinforcing a class-divided society. Marxists see
the role of religion as an important one that benefits the ruling class.
P1 POINT:
Marxist religious ideology is an effective method of social control over the working class. Religion
serves the interest of the ruling class by distorting reality.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
- Distorting reality
Religion blinds the working class to understanding the real reason for their poor situation; being
exploited by the ruling class.
Explanation of that inequality has been justified by religious ideas (e.g. sin, God’s providence, God
works in mysterious ways, the afterlife). Religious ideas distort how working class people view
reality; by distorting their view, this creates a false class-consciousness amongst the working class as
it helps them accept their position as the norm.
EVALUATION:
- Feminism: Aspects of the Marxist theory of religion are supported by feminists. They would
agree with the Marxist view that religion can act as a form of social control against the
working class. However, they would go further and argue religions are oppressive especially
towards women because religion is used to justify a patriarchal society.
- Alternate perspective: Functionalist - would agree religion acts as a form of social control
but they differ in who benefits from this. To the functionalist, religion regulates and
maintains social order which is good for the stability of society as a whole.
LINK: Marxists would argue that it is this distortion of reality facilitated by religion that blinds the
working class and enables the ruling class to remain in their position. And so for Marxists religion is
not beneficial for all members of society.
P2 POINT:
Marxists see religion's role as an important one that benefits the ruling class by acting as an ‘opiate of
the masses’ (working class).
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
- Karl marx - opiate of the masses
Marx saw religion as the ‘opium for the people’. By this he meant that religion ‘drugs’ the working
class by providing a comforting diversion from seeing and attacking the real cause of their poverty
(i.e. the injustice of the capitalist system) by promising eternal happiness in the afterlife.
This helps working class people accept their poverty on earth because the potential rewards in the
afterlife are huge. Marx saw happiness after death as an illusion. Such an illusion helps maintain and
sustain the social inequality between the classes.
EVALUATION:
- Less validity: The process of secularisation has meant religious beliefs and religious worship
have declined in some western societies. This means religious ideology acting as a form of
controlling factor may no longer be applicable if people do not believe in religion any more.
This suggests the Marxist theory of religion may not be as valid in modern societies in the
West.
- Alternate perspective: Postmodernism - They argue the recent fragmentation of beliefs
(reflected in the growth of many NRMs and NAMs) has weakened the influence religion has
over people. Individuals can reason for themselves and can pick and choose the aspects of
religion which they find appealing. This suggests it is hard to see how people are
manipulated by religion as suggested by Marxists.
LINK: Marx views religion's purpose as benefiting the ruling class and creating an illusion for the
working class in order to prevent a revolution.
P3 POINT:
Marxist see religion as justifying class inequality keeping the working class under a false-class
consciousness.
, KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Religion justifies inequality between the classes as being fair and natural because it has been ordained
by God as expressed in the religious hymn “All things bright and beautiful’: “The rich man in his
castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them, high or lowly, and ordered their estate”. Religion
also reduces the chance of revolt through the concept of ‘hell’. Those who do evil will be damned in
hell; such a concept creates the fear of hell amongst the working class and minimises any challenges
made to existing social order as this would be a direct challenge to God.
- Eg The Hindu caste system in India encourages social class divisions. This hierarchical
religious system determines before birth which social position people will be born in society
(‘Brahmins’ being the highest and ‘untouchables’ the lowest position). The caste system will
determine the job to which one can aspire to in life, and as a result, will determine the
socioeconomic status in society.
- Eg Religious faith is strongest amongst the poor. The growth of religious belief is often
found to be strongest among the poor, the oppressed and the working class, especially
amongst women who are the least powerful in society. This may explain the growth of Islam
and the veiling of Muslim women in some poorer regions in the Middle East (Afghanistan,
Palestine and Iran).
EVALUATION:
- Difficult to research to see if they are true: For example, with the idea of a ‘false
consciousness’, what type of research would be carried out to test this concept? This makes
some concepts impossible to prove or disprove, which makes the Marxist theory of religion
unscientific.
- Alternate perspective: Feminists criticise this view by highlighting how religion not only
justifies class inequality but also reinforces gender inequality, often subjugating women and
limiting their social roles.
LINK: Marxist see religion as the facilitator that upholds a false class consciousness. By
indoctrinating its members into believing in a reward for their disadvantaged life or punishment for
deviating from set norms, eg ‘the devil makes work for idle hands’. Therefore religion's role, for
marxists, would be to fuel capitalism and keep the class divide strong.
Concl In conclusion, although Marxists theorists would argue that religion is a barrier against social change,
secularisation theorists would challenge this debate, suggesting that religion is no longer socially
relevant, whether as a force of conservatism or reform. However this may be a eurocentric view,
disregarding the dominant form of religion in other parts of the world. From the evidence we can see
that it often takes a role that prevents social change yet in many other parts of the world it also has the
capacity to drive it forward.
cohesion (20 marks)
Intro To functionalists, religion is an important part of society as it helps integrate people together by
sharing common beliefs, morals, and opinions. This creates a value consensus in society (people
sharing the same values) and social solidarity/cohesion in society. Religion helps maintain the same
values and social norms held collectively by all in society, which is important for maintaining social
control and order in society. So the contribution of religion in society and to the individual is both
positive and beneficial ultimately promoting social cohesion.
P1 POINT:
Functionalists like Durkheim argue that religions main function is to promote social cohesion/social
solidarity.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Durkeim conducted a secondary analysis of the role and function of religion in a primitive aboriginal
arunta tribe in the trobriand islands.
- Totem
Members of the tribe would worship a totem (sacred symbol), allowing rituals and collective worship
to take place. Integrating group to a shared identity.
- Sacred and profane
The totem, places and other rituals were viewed by the tribe as being sacred (a special meaning) and
anything that was not connected to the totem was seen as profane – (not sacred), such as everyday
activity. Sacred objects reinforce collective consciousness.
- Worshipping of society
The tribe as a ‘group’ exists because of the totem. The collective worship around the totem is really
worshipping of the tribe itself. Unconsciously worshipping group identity.
EVALUATION:
- Methodical flaws in Durkheim’s research: only studied a few Aboriginal tribes which meant
that a) his sample was small, non- representative, hard to generalise his findings to society
as a whole; b) issue of applying his study of a primitive tribe to a large diverse modern
society; c) research findings are based on secondary sources -errors eg bias and
misinterpretation.
- Alternate perspective: Marxists- accept the functionalist view that religion can promote
social stability. But do not see it as beneficial for society as a whole. Marxists see religion as
benefiting the ruling class.
LINK: Durkheim's research supports the view that the main function of religion is to promote social
cohesion with his focus on symbols and objects creating a ‘group’ identity ultimately reinforcing a
collective consciousness.
P2 POINT:
Functionalists like Malinowski and Parson’s argue that religion’s main function is social cohesion that
manifests through its psychological function.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Malinowski’s theory on the role of religion was based on a study of a small- scale tribal society in the
Trobriand Islands.
- In times of uncertainty/ risk
Found that fishing in the lagoon was not preceded by rituals (no risk) but fishing in the open sea,
amid conditions of uncertainty and risk, was always preceded by rituals.
This led him to believe religion helps provide security and explanations in times of uncertainty and
crisis (unpredictable or uncontrollable events) e.g. death, illness, unemployment etc. Religious
explanations help produce confidence and a feeling of control in times of crisis and fear.
- Anomie - Parsons
Argues religion helps deal with ‘life crisis’ which would otherwise lead to anomie (break down
of norms of behaviour) that can threaten stability and order in society. Religion gives meaning to
ultimate questions (e.g. life after death) and to the meaningless and inexplicable suffering and evil
(e.g. cancer in babies). Belief in concepts such as immortality, heaven, funeral ceremonies, helps in
the stability of a healthy society, as it provides meaning to such events.
EVALUATION:
- Methodological flaws in Malinowski’s research: study was carried out in the 1950’s on a
small scale non-literate Trobriand Islanders sample. Research is non-representative and not
, applicable to modern complex industrialised societies. Can’t generalise the research findings
beyond the tribe the research was based on.
- Alternate perspective: Feminists- accept the functionalist view that religion can promote
social stability. But do not see it as beneficial for society as a whole. Feminists see religion
as reinforcing the patriarchy.
LINK: Parsons theories support the functionalist idea that religions main function is to promote social
cohesion. His topic focus on meaning behind action explains the importance of collective belief for
both anomie prevention and security in times of unease.
P3 POINT:
Neo-Functionalists like Bellah argue that the main function of religion is social cohesion; however
this social cohesion can survive without traditional religion.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Civil religion - Bellah.
- Loss of religion
The analysis of American society argues that religious beliefs will eventually die as society becomes
more secular and more diversified.
- Rise in civil religion
Argues that certain social activities perform the same functions of uniting people together just like
religion has done (civil religion). These are non-religious events, in which people are united by a faith
in their shared nationalism which is expressed through ritual, ceremonies and beliefs (e.g. royal
weddings, memorial days, flag waving, and national team sport) which help integrate its members in
society in a similar way to that of religion. This unity of society can be achieved by civil religion.
EVALUATION:
- The growth of New Age Movements: suggests people have become disillusioned by
institutional faiths, as they may no longer provide an adequate explanation and security, as
suggested by Malinowski and Parsons. People now seek other forms to help with a life
crisis, such as an emphasis on spirituality. This would suggest the functionalist view that
mainstream religion provides meaning and emotional support in a modern society may to
some extent no longer be valid.
- Alternate perspective: Postmodernists - see globalisation as a factor of secularisation and
especially in the west. Would view functionalist perspective as outdated.
LINK: Neo- functionalist Bellah, also agrees that the main function of religion is social cohesion yet,
unlike Durkheim and Parsons, through their research into civil religions it is clear that this social
cohesion does not rely on traditional religion.
Concl In conclusion, in a contemporary society characterised by pluralism, globalisation and - in the west-
secularisation, the idea that religions main function is to promote social cohesion is not convincing.
Religion today is much more a source of identity and difference than it is a source of consensus, and
postmodernist theories lead us to re-evaluate the functions of religion in a postmodern world.
,Marxist theory of religion: Evaluate the Marxist view of religion (20 marks)
Intro Marxists see capitalist society as made up of two conflicting classes: the ruling class (bourgeoisie)
and the working class (proletariat). Marxists believed that the working class will eventually be aware
of their exploitation and rise up to overthrow the ruling class and replace capitalism with a classless
society where everyone is equal and exploitation is removed (utopian society). However, religion
prevents this from occurring and helps to continue reinforcing a class-divided society. Marxists see
the role of religion as an important one that benefits the ruling class.
P1 POINT:
Marxist religious ideology is an effective method of social control over the working class. Religion
serves the interest of the ruling class by distorting reality.
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
- Distorting reality
Religion blinds the working class to understanding the real reason for their poor situation; being
exploited by the ruling class.
Explanation of that inequality has been justified by religious ideas (e.g. sin, God’s providence, God
works in mysterious ways, the afterlife). Religious ideas distort how working class people view
reality; by distorting their view, this creates a false class-consciousness amongst the working class as
it helps them accept their position as the norm.
EVALUATION:
- Feminism: Aspects of the Marxist theory of religion are supported by feminists. They would
agree with the Marxist view that religion can act as a form of social control against the
working class. However, they would go further and argue religions are oppressive especially
towards women because religion is used to justify a patriarchal society.
- Alternate perspective: Functionalist - would agree religion acts as a form of social control
but they differ in who benefits from this. To the functionalist, religion regulates and
maintains social order which is good for the stability of society as a whole.
LINK: Marxists would argue that it is this distortion of reality facilitated by religion that blinds the
working class and enables the ruling class to remain in their position. And so for Marxists religion is
not beneficial for all members of society.
P2 POINT:
Marxists see religion's role as an important one that benefits the ruling class by acting as an ‘opiate of
the masses’ (working class).
KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
- Karl marx - opiate of the masses
Marx saw religion as the ‘opium for the people’. By this he meant that religion ‘drugs’ the working
class by providing a comforting diversion from seeing and attacking the real cause of their poverty
(i.e. the injustice of the capitalist system) by promising eternal happiness in the afterlife.
This helps working class people accept their poverty on earth because the potential rewards in the
afterlife are huge. Marx saw happiness after death as an illusion. Such an illusion helps maintain and
sustain the social inequality between the classes.
EVALUATION:
- Less validity: The process of secularisation has meant religious beliefs and religious worship
have declined in some western societies. This means religious ideology acting as a form of
controlling factor may no longer be applicable if people do not believe in religion any more.
This suggests the Marxist theory of religion may not be as valid in modern societies in the
West.
- Alternate perspective: Postmodernism - They argue the recent fragmentation of beliefs
(reflected in the growth of many NRMs and NAMs) has weakened the influence religion has
over people. Individuals can reason for themselves and can pick and choose the aspects of
religion which they find appealing. This suggests it is hard to see how people are
manipulated by religion as suggested by Marxists.
LINK: Marx views religion's purpose as benefiting the ruling class and creating an illusion for the
working class in order to prevent a revolution.
P3 POINT:
Marxist see religion as justifying class inequality keeping the working class under a false-class
consciousness.
, KNOWLEDGE & APPLICATION:
Religion justifies inequality between the classes as being fair and natural because it has been ordained
by God as expressed in the religious hymn “All things bright and beautiful’: “The rich man in his
castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them, high or lowly, and ordered their estate”. Religion
also reduces the chance of revolt through the concept of ‘hell’. Those who do evil will be damned in
hell; such a concept creates the fear of hell amongst the working class and minimises any challenges
made to existing social order as this would be a direct challenge to God.
- Eg The Hindu caste system in India encourages social class divisions. This hierarchical
religious system determines before birth which social position people will be born in society
(‘Brahmins’ being the highest and ‘untouchables’ the lowest position). The caste system will
determine the job to which one can aspire to in life, and as a result, will determine the
socioeconomic status in society.
- Eg Religious faith is strongest amongst the poor. The growth of religious belief is often
found to be strongest among the poor, the oppressed and the working class, especially
amongst women who are the least powerful in society. This may explain the growth of Islam
and the veiling of Muslim women in some poorer regions in the Middle East (Afghanistan,
Palestine and Iran).
EVALUATION:
- Difficult to research to see if they are true: For example, with the idea of a ‘false
consciousness’, what type of research would be carried out to test this concept? This makes
some concepts impossible to prove or disprove, which makes the Marxist theory of religion
unscientific.
- Alternate perspective: Feminists criticise this view by highlighting how religion not only
justifies class inequality but also reinforces gender inequality, often subjugating women and
limiting their social roles.
LINK: Marxist see religion as the facilitator that upholds a false class consciousness. By
indoctrinating its members into believing in a reward for their disadvantaged life or punishment for
deviating from set norms, eg ‘the devil makes work for idle hands’. Therefore religion's role, for
marxists, would be to fuel capitalism and keep the class divide strong.
Concl In conclusion, although Marxists theorists would argue that religion is a barrier against social change,
secularisation theorists would challenge this debate, suggesting that religion is no longer socially
relevant, whether as a force of conservatism or reform. However this may be a eurocentric view,
disregarding the dominant form of religion in other parts of the world. From the evidence we can see
that it often takes a role that prevents social change yet in many other parts of the world it also has the
capacity to drive it forward.
