PSYC 435 PSYCHOLOGY LATEST EXAM Question
with Detailed Answers
1. Discuss |the |different |conceptual |approaches |to |understanding |the |causes |of |abnormal |behaviour.
These |approaches |will |include: |(a) |necessary, |sufficient, |and |contributory |causes; |(b) |feedback |and
circularity |models; |and |(c) |the |diathesis-stress |model. |- |ANSWER |- |Attempting |to |understand |a
|person's |life |in |causal |terms |is |a |massive, |arguably |impossible |task |- |as |a |result, |most |investigators
|speak |in |terms |of |risk |factors.
Necessary |cause |(X) |is |a |condition |necessary |for |disorder |(Y) |to |occur. |For |example, |general |paresis |(Y)
|can |only |occur |if |one |has |contracted |syphilis |(X). |'If |disorder |Y |appears, |X |must |have |preceded |it.
Sufficient |cause |is |a |condition |that |guarantees |the |onset |of |a |disorder, |although |many |other |causes
|could |lead |to |the |same |disorder. |For |example, |feeling |extremely |hopeless |about |one's |future |is
|arguably
sufficient |to |cause |depression.
Contributory |cause |is |one |that |increases |the |probability |of |one |getting |a |disorder |but |is |neither
|necessary |nor |sufficient |to |bring |on |this |discorder.
A |predisposition |to |developing |a |disorder |is |called |diathesis, |which |is |a |distal |necessary |or |contributing
|cause, |but |usually |not |sufficient |to |trigger |a |disorder. |Chronic |or |episodic |stressors |that |must |be
accommodated |for |can |contribute |to |the |likelihood |that |a |disorder |will |emerge. |This |is |known |as
|the |diathesis-stress |model
Behavioral |sciences |usually |deal |with |a |variety |of |interacting |causes |and |effects, |some |which |feedback
|or |are |bidirectional. |For |example, |stress |may |lead |one |eventually |to |depression, |which |reduces |one's
|social |and |economic |efficacy, |which |in |turn |will |cause |further |stress.
Summarize |the |biological |theories |of |abnormal |behaviour, |including |neurotransmitter/hormonal
imbalances, |genetic |and |constitutional |influences, |and |physical |damage |to |brain |structures. |- |ANSWER
|- |Neurotransmitter |imbalance |is |involved |in |the |ethology |of |most |mental |disorders, |sometimes |brought
|on |by |psychological |stress. |Excessive |production |or |release |of |NTs, |dysfunction |in |their |deactivation
|or |reuptake, |or |abnormal |sensitivity |or |insensitivity |with |receptors |at |the |postsynaptic |vesicles.
pg. |1
,Hormone |imbalance |can |lead |to |neuropathology, |especially |interactions |at
|the |hypothalamusmicpituitary-adrenal |axis |(HPA |axis). |Action |of |this |axis
|involves:
1. Messages |in |the |form |of |corticotrophin-releasing |hormone |(CRH) |travel |from |the
|hypothalamus |to |the |pituitary
2. In |response |to |CRH, |the |pituitary |releases |adrenocorticotropic |hormone |(ACTH),
|which |stimulates |the |adrenal |glands |to |produce |epinephrine |(adrenaline) |and |cortisol.
Genetically |heritable |traits |such |as |neuroticism |can |predispose |an |individual |to |certain |mental |disorders.
Damage |to |many |brain |structures, |for |example, |the |hippocampus |(responsible |for |memory |formation
|and |a |number |of |other |important |functions) |or |the |frontal |lobe |(responsible |for |personality, |impulse
|control |etc) |has |been |implicated |in |a |number |of |mental |disorders.
Discuss |the |substantive |contributions |of |the |psychosocial |factors |of |deviant |cognitions |(schemas |and
|selfschemas), |early |deprivation |or |trauma |(e.g., |parental |deprivation, |institutionalization, |abuse, |etc.),
|inadequate |parenting |and |pathogenic |family |structures, |and |problems |with |peer |relationships. |-
|ANSWER
- |Schemas |are |underlying |reprisentations |of |knowledge |that |guide |the |current |processing |of
|information |and |often |lead |to |distortions |in |attention, |learning, |and |comprehension. |We |hold |on |to
|schemas, |even |incorrect |ones, |somewhat |rigidly, |partly |because |we |are |not |completely |conscious |of
|them.
Accommodation |is |the |changing |of |schemas |to |incorporate |new |and |sometimes |challenging
|information |& |is |a |basic |goal |of |psychotherapies. |Different |forms |of |psychopathology |are
|characterized |by |different |maladytive |schemas |that |have |developed |as |a |result |of |early |adverse
|learning |experiences, |which |lead |to |distortions |of |thinking |characteristic |of |anxiety, |depression, |and
|personality |disorders.
Early |childhood |deprivation, |institutionalization, |and |abuse |are |strongly |associated |with
|psychopathologgy |and |poor |outcomes |and |substantial |impairments |in |funnctioning. |This |children |are
|more |likely |to |develop |atypical |styles |of |attachment |(most |often |disorganized |& |disoriented |style).
Results: |negative |schemas, |lack |of |reinforcement |for |positive |behaviors. |Protective |factors |such |as |high
|IQ, |talents, |positive |school |experiences, |and/or |attractiveness |can |mediate |some |of |these |negative
|effects.
Parental |psychopathology |can |be |a |source |of |serious |life |stressors |and |cause |many |of |the |same
|problems |to |be |passed |to |the |next |generation. |These |stressors |make |the |struggles |& |challenges |of
|social |situations |and |the |angling |for |status |recessary |in |school |relationships |difficult, |often |leading |to
|either |withdrawal |or |aggressive |behaviors.
Describe |the |basic |elements |of |clinical |assessment, |including: |a) |its |nature |and |purpose, |b) |the
|relationship |between |diagnosis |and |assessment, |c) |the |types |of |information |sought, |and |d) |the
|different |types |of |data |of |interest. |- |ANSWER |- |The |nature |and |purpose |of |clinical |assessment: |The
,presenting
|
pg. |2
, problem |must |be |identified |(major |symptoms |or |behaviour |that |the |client |is |exhibiting. |We |must |ask |if
|the |problem |is |situational |or |chronic |or |both; |is |there |evidence |of |recent |deterioration |in |cognitive
|functioning, |what |is |the |duration |of |current |complaint, |how |is |the |person |dealing |with |the |problem
(previously |sought |help/self-defeating |behavior/using |resources |wisely); |how |pervasively |has |the
|problem |affected |the |person's |performance |of |important |social |roles; |does |behaviour |fit |diagnostic
|criteria?
Relationship |between |diagnosis |and |assessment: |clinically, |knowledge |of |a |person's |disorder |type |can
|help |in |planning |and |managing |appropriate |treatment. |Administratively, |it |is |essential |to |know |the
|needs |of |the |client |population |and |for |which |treatment |facilities |need |to |be |available; |also |necessary
|for
insurance |coverage
Adequate |assessment |is |more |than |just |a |label, |but |also |takes |into |account |objective |information |about
1. |Behaviour: |how |the |client |objectively |responds |to |people, |excesses |or |deficits |in |behavior, |quality
|of |social |skills. |2. |Personality |factors: |deviant |response |patterns, |traits |that |lead |to |maladaptive
|behaviours, |overly |enmeshing |personality |to |point |of |losing |identity, |inability |to |empathize/accept
|help, |capable |of
accepting |affection. |3. |Social |context: |environmental |demands, |socioeconomic/cultural |status
Describe |the |influence |of |professional |orientation |on |the |assessment |process. |- |ANSWER |- |Method |of
assessment |and |treatment |orientation |is |largely |dependent |on |the |clinician's |background |and |expertise.
Psychiatrists |or |medical |practitioners |are |likely |to |focus |on |biological |assessment |methods |aimed |at
|determining |any |underlying |organic |malfunctioning.
Psychodynamic |or |psychoanalytic |oriented |clinicians |are |likely |to |use |unstructured |personality
assessment |techniques |such |as |the |Rorschach |inkblots |or |Thematic |Apperception |Test |to |identify
intrapsychic |conflicts, |or |just |proceed |with |therapy |expecting |conflicts |to |emerge |naturally |as |part |of
|the |process.
Behavioralists |will |attempt |to |determine |the |functional |relationships |between |environmental
|events, |learning |experiences, |and |reinforcements/punishments |and |the |abnormal |behaviour, |and
|will |rely |on |such |techniques |such |as |behavioural |observation |and |self-monitoring.
Cognitive-behaviourists |would |shif |t |to |the |dysfunctional |thoughts |supposedly |mediating |these
|behavioural |patterns
Describe |the |major |intelligence |tests. |- |ANSWER |- |For |children, |the |Wechleser |Intelligence |Scale
|for |Children |(WISC-IV) |and |the |current |edition |of |the |Stanford-Beinet |Intelligence |Scare |are |most
|widely |used. |For |adults, |the |Wechleser |Adult |Intelligence |Scale |- |Revised |(WAIS-IV) |is |most
|commonly |used.
These |IQ |tests |take |2-3 |hours |to |administer, |interpret |and |score |(thus |are |not |used |extremely |often
|in |clinical |settings), |and |include |both |verbal |and |performance |material |consisting |of |15 |subsets. |2 |of
|them |are:
with Detailed Answers
1. Discuss |the |different |conceptual |approaches |to |understanding |the |causes |of |abnormal |behaviour.
These |approaches |will |include: |(a) |necessary, |sufficient, |and |contributory |causes; |(b) |feedback |and
circularity |models; |and |(c) |the |diathesis-stress |model. |- |ANSWER |- |Attempting |to |understand |a
|person's |life |in |causal |terms |is |a |massive, |arguably |impossible |task |- |as |a |result, |most |investigators
|speak |in |terms |of |risk |factors.
Necessary |cause |(X) |is |a |condition |necessary |for |disorder |(Y) |to |occur. |For |example, |general |paresis |(Y)
|can |only |occur |if |one |has |contracted |syphilis |(X). |'If |disorder |Y |appears, |X |must |have |preceded |it.
Sufficient |cause |is |a |condition |that |guarantees |the |onset |of |a |disorder, |although |many |other |causes
|could |lead |to |the |same |disorder. |For |example, |feeling |extremely |hopeless |about |one's |future |is
|arguably
sufficient |to |cause |depression.
Contributory |cause |is |one |that |increases |the |probability |of |one |getting |a |disorder |but |is |neither
|necessary |nor |sufficient |to |bring |on |this |discorder.
A |predisposition |to |developing |a |disorder |is |called |diathesis, |which |is |a |distal |necessary |or |contributing
|cause, |but |usually |not |sufficient |to |trigger |a |disorder. |Chronic |or |episodic |stressors |that |must |be
accommodated |for |can |contribute |to |the |likelihood |that |a |disorder |will |emerge. |This |is |known |as
|the |diathesis-stress |model
Behavioral |sciences |usually |deal |with |a |variety |of |interacting |causes |and |effects, |some |which |feedback
|or |are |bidirectional. |For |example, |stress |may |lead |one |eventually |to |depression, |which |reduces |one's
|social |and |economic |efficacy, |which |in |turn |will |cause |further |stress.
Summarize |the |biological |theories |of |abnormal |behaviour, |including |neurotransmitter/hormonal
imbalances, |genetic |and |constitutional |influences, |and |physical |damage |to |brain |structures. |- |ANSWER
|- |Neurotransmitter |imbalance |is |involved |in |the |ethology |of |most |mental |disorders, |sometimes |brought
|on |by |psychological |stress. |Excessive |production |or |release |of |NTs, |dysfunction |in |their |deactivation
|or |reuptake, |or |abnormal |sensitivity |or |insensitivity |with |receptors |at |the |postsynaptic |vesicles.
pg. |1
,Hormone |imbalance |can |lead |to |neuropathology, |especially |interactions |at
|the |hypothalamusmicpituitary-adrenal |axis |(HPA |axis). |Action |of |this |axis
|involves:
1. Messages |in |the |form |of |corticotrophin-releasing |hormone |(CRH) |travel |from |the
|hypothalamus |to |the |pituitary
2. In |response |to |CRH, |the |pituitary |releases |adrenocorticotropic |hormone |(ACTH),
|which |stimulates |the |adrenal |glands |to |produce |epinephrine |(adrenaline) |and |cortisol.
Genetically |heritable |traits |such |as |neuroticism |can |predispose |an |individual |to |certain |mental |disorders.
Damage |to |many |brain |structures, |for |example, |the |hippocampus |(responsible |for |memory |formation
|and |a |number |of |other |important |functions) |or |the |frontal |lobe |(responsible |for |personality, |impulse
|control |etc) |has |been |implicated |in |a |number |of |mental |disorders.
Discuss |the |substantive |contributions |of |the |psychosocial |factors |of |deviant |cognitions |(schemas |and
|selfschemas), |early |deprivation |or |trauma |(e.g., |parental |deprivation, |institutionalization, |abuse, |etc.),
|inadequate |parenting |and |pathogenic |family |structures, |and |problems |with |peer |relationships. |-
|ANSWER
- |Schemas |are |underlying |reprisentations |of |knowledge |that |guide |the |current |processing |of
|information |and |often |lead |to |distortions |in |attention, |learning, |and |comprehension. |We |hold |on |to
|schemas, |even |incorrect |ones, |somewhat |rigidly, |partly |because |we |are |not |completely |conscious |of
|them.
Accommodation |is |the |changing |of |schemas |to |incorporate |new |and |sometimes |challenging
|information |& |is |a |basic |goal |of |psychotherapies. |Different |forms |of |psychopathology |are
|characterized |by |different |maladytive |schemas |that |have |developed |as |a |result |of |early |adverse
|learning |experiences, |which |lead |to |distortions |of |thinking |characteristic |of |anxiety, |depression, |and
|personality |disorders.
Early |childhood |deprivation, |institutionalization, |and |abuse |are |strongly |associated |with
|psychopathologgy |and |poor |outcomes |and |substantial |impairments |in |funnctioning. |This |children |are
|more |likely |to |develop |atypical |styles |of |attachment |(most |often |disorganized |& |disoriented |style).
Results: |negative |schemas, |lack |of |reinforcement |for |positive |behaviors. |Protective |factors |such |as |high
|IQ, |talents, |positive |school |experiences, |and/or |attractiveness |can |mediate |some |of |these |negative
|effects.
Parental |psychopathology |can |be |a |source |of |serious |life |stressors |and |cause |many |of |the |same
|problems |to |be |passed |to |the |next |generation. |These |stressors |make |the |struggles |& |challenges |of
|social |situations |and |the |angling |for |status |recessary |in |school |relationships |difficult, |often |leading |to
|either |withdrawal |or |aggressive |behaviors.
Describe |the |basic |elements |of |clinical |assessment, |including: |a) |its |nature |and |purpose, |b) |the
|relationship |between |diagnosis |and |assessment, |c) |the |types |of |information |sought, |and |d) |the
|different |types |of |data |of |interest. |- |ANSWER |- |The |nature |and |purpose |of |clinical |assessment: |The
,presenting
|
pg. |2
, problem |must |be |identified |(major |symptoms |or |behaviour |that |the |client |is |exhibiting. |We |must |ask |if
|the |problem |is |situational |or |chronic |or |both; |is |there |evidence |of |recent |deterioration |in |cognitive
|functioning, |what |is |the |duration |of |current |complaint, |how |is |the |person |dealing |with |the |problem
(previously |sought |help/self-defeating |behavior/using |resources |wisely); |how |pervasively |has |the
|problem |affected |the |person's |performance |of |important |social |roles; |does |behaviour |fit |diagnostic
|criteria?
Relationship |between |diagnosis |and |assessment: |clinically, |knowledge |of |a |person's |disorder |type |can
|help |in |planning |and |managing |appropriate |treatment. |Administratively, |it |is |essential |to |know |the
|needs |of |the |client |population |and |for |which |treatment |facilities |need |to |be |available; |also |necessary
|for
insurance |coverage
Adequate |assessment |is |more |than |just |a |label, |but |also |takes |into |account |objective |information |about
1. |Behaviour: |how |the |client |objectively |responds |to |people, |excesses |or |deficits |in |behavior, |quality
|of |social |skills. |2. |Personality |factors: |deviant |response |patterns, |traits |that |lead |to |maladaptive
|behaviours, |overly |enmeshing |personality |to |point |of |losing |identity, |inability |to |empathize/accept
|help, |capable |of
accepting |affection. |3. |Social |context: |environmental |demands, |socioeconomic/cultural |status
Describe |the |influence |of |professional |orientation |on |the |assessment |process. |- |ANSWER |- |Method |of
assessment |and |treatment |orientation |is |largely |dependent |on |the |clinician's |background |and |expertise.
Psychiatrists |or |medical |practitioners |are |likely |to |focus |on |biological |assessment |methods |aimed |at
|determining |any |underlying |organic |malfunctioning.
Psychodynamic |or |psychoanalytic |oriented |clinicians |are |likely |to |use |unstructured |personality
assessment |techniques |such |as |the |Rorschach |inkblots |or |Thematic |Apperception |Test |to |identify
intrapsychic |conflicts, |or |just |proceed |with |therapy |expecting |conflicts |to |emerge |naturally |as |part |of
|the |process.
Behavioralists |will |attempt |to |determine |the |functional |relationships |between |environmental
|events, |learning |experiences, |and |reinforcements/punishments |and |the |abnormal |behaviour, |and
|will |rely |on |such |techniques |such |as |behavioural |observation |and |self-monitoring.
Cognitive-behaviourists |would |shif |t |to |the |dysfunctional |thoughts |supposedly |mediating |these
|behavioural |patterns
Describe |the |major |intelligence |tests. |- |ANSWER |- |For |children, |the |Wechleser |Intelligence |Scale
|for |Children |(WISC-IV) |and |the |current |edition |of |the |Stanford-Beinet |Intelligence |Scare |are |most
|widely |used. |For |adults, |the |Wechleser |Adult |Intelligence |Scale |- |Revised |(WAIS-IV) |is |most
|commonly |used.
These |IQ |tests |take |2-3 |hours |to |administer, |interpret |and |score |(thus |are |not |used |extremely |often
|in |clinical |settings), |and |include |both |verbal |and |performance |material |consisting |of |15 |subsets. |2 |of
|them |are:
