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,
,LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR INTRODUCTORY GEOLOGY
FOURTH EDIT ION
ALLAN LUDMAN
Queens College, New York
STEPHEN MARSHAK
University of Illinois
n
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY NEW
YORK • LONDON
i
,W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William
Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s
Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded
their program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America
and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade
books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred
control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a com-
parable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton
& Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2012, 2010 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. All
rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Fourth Edition
Editor: Jake Schindel
Associate Editor: Rachel Goodman Senior
Project Editor: Thomas Foley
Associate Directors of Production, College: Benjamin Reynolds and Eric Pier-Hocking Copy
Editor: Norma Sims Roche
Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing
Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Digital Media
Editor: Rob Bellinger
Associate Media Editor: Arielle Holstein Editorial
Assistant, Digital Media: Kelly Smith Media
Project Editor: Marcus Van Harpen Marketing
Manager, Geology: Katie Sweeney Design
Director: Hope Miller Goodell Designer: Juan
Paolo Francisco
Photography Editor: Travis Carr
Director of College Permissions: Megan Schindel College
Permissions Specialist: Bethany Salminen
All Topographic Maps created by Mapping Specialists, Ltd.---Madison, WI
Composition and page layout by MPS North America LLC Manufacturing
by LSC Communications---Kendallville, IN
Permission to use copyrighted material is included in the backmatter of this book.
ISBN: 978–0–393–61752–8
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110
wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS 1 2
34567890
,CO N T E NT S
Preface vii 2.5 Processes at Plate Boundaries Revealed by
Earth Features 37
CHAPTER 1 2.5.1 Seafloor Spreading 37
Setting the Stage for Learning 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 39
2.5.3 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness of
about the Earth ..................................................................................... 1 Subduction 41
2.5.4 Transform Faults 43
1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist 2 2.5.5 Hot-Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks 46
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 The Scientific Method 4 2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins 50
1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 5
CHAPTER 3
1.2.1 The Nature of Matter 5
1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System 6 Minerals............................................................................................................53
1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System 7
3.1 Introduction 54
1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressure in the Earth’s Crust 11
3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 54
1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 12
1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance 12
3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn’t? 55
1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units 12 3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals 57
1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics” 14
3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties 57
3.4.2 Luster 58
1.4 The Challenges of Studying an Entire
Planet 15 3.4.3 Color 58
3.4.4 Streak 58
1.4.1 The Challenge of Scale 15
3.4.5 Hardness 60
1.4.2 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time 19
3.4.6 Crystal Habit 61
1.5 Rates of Geologic Processes 21 3.4.7 Breakage 61
3.4.8 Specific Gravity 65
APPENDIX 1.1
3.4.9 Magnetism 66
METRIC-U.S. CUSTOMARY CONVERSION
CHART 24
3.4.10 Feel 66
3.4.11 Taste 66
3.4.12 Odor 66
3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid 66
CHAPTER 2
3.4.14 Tenacity 66
The Way the Earth Works: Examining
3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens 66
Plate Tectonics................................................................................... 25
3.6 Mineral Classification 68
2.1 Introduction 26
3.7 Minerals and the Economy 68
2.2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 26 3.7.1 What Makes Minerals Valuable? 69
2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics 28
3.7.2 Economic Mineral Deposits 69
2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 28 APPENDIX 3.1
2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate MINERAL IDENTIFICATION FLOWCHARTS 75
Zones 29
APPENDIX 3.2
2.3.3 Geographic Distribution of Earthquakes and Active
Volcanoes 30 DETERMINATIVE TABLES FOR SYSTEMATIC
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION 78
2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics 33 APPENDIX 3.3
2.4.1 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Oceanic COMMON MINERALS AND THEIR
Magnetic Anomalies 33
PROPERTIES 82
2.4.2 Direct Measurement of Plate Motion 36
iii
,CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 6
Minerals, Rocks, and the Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret
Rock Cycle ..................................................................................................89 Earth History......................................................................................... 143
4.1 Introduction 90 6.1 Introduction 144
4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks 90 6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution 144
4.2.1 The Rock Cycle 91 6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment 144
6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment
4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals 91 Composition 144
4.3.1 Describing Texture 91 6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity 145
4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures 96 6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 147
6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 147
4.5 Clues about a Rock’s Origin from the 6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 150
Minerals It Contains 100
6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks 152
4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks 100
6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks 153
4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks 103
6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures 157
4.8 The Economic Value of Rocks 106 6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting 157
6.5.2 Grain Shape 159
CHAPTER 5 6.5.3 Sediment “Maturity” 159
6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks 161
Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth
6.6 Sedimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient
History ............................................................................................................... 111 Environments 161
5.1 Introduction 112 6.6.1 Beds and Stratification 161
6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures 161
5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories
of Igneous Rocks 113 6.7 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life 165
5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock 114 6.8 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy 165
5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures 118
5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures 118
5.2.4 Fragmental Textures 118 CHAPTER 7
5.2.5 Grain Shape 120 Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks .............................173
5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and 7.1 Introduction 174
Identification 121
7.2 What Changes during Metamorphism? 174
5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major
Compositional Groups 121 7.2.1 Changes in Texture 174
5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks 122 7.2.2 Changes in Mineralogy 175
7.2.3 Changes in Composition 175
5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas 123
5.4.1 Where and Why Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 7.3 Agents of Metamorphism 175
124 7.3.1 The Effect of Heat 175
5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 124
7.3.2 The Effect of Pressure 177
5.4.3 Factors Controlling Magma Composition 127 7.3.3 The Effects of Stress 180
5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics 129 7.3.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids 180
5.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks 7.4 Studying Metamorphic Rocks 180
(Peridotite) 129
7.4.1 How to Determine if a Rock Is Metamorphic 181
5.5.2 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks
(Basalt and Gabbro) 130 7.4.2 Metamorphic Rock Classification and
Identification 182
5.5.3 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Igneous Rocks
(Andesite and Diorite) 130 7.4.3 Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Rocks 182
5.5.4 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite and
Rhyolite) 131 7.5 What Can We Learn from a Metamorphic
Rock? 186
5.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 132 7.5.1 Identifying the Protolith 187
5.6.1 Volcanic Landforms 132 7.5.2 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism and
5.6.2 Living with Volcanoes 134 Geologic Setting 188
7.5.3 Estimating the Grade of Metamorphism 190
iv CONTENTS
,CHAPTER 8 10.4 Geologic Maps 256
Studying the Earth’s Landforms: Maps 10.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols 256
10.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections 259
and Other Tools ................................................................................197 10.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns 260
8.1 Introduction 198 10.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines 263
8.2 Ways to Portray the Earth’s Surface 198 10.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes 264
8.2.1 Map Projections 198 10.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps 267
8.3 Map Elements 201
8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location 201 CHAPTER 11
8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction 208 Earthquakes and Seismology................................. 275
8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale 211
11.1 Introduction 276
8.4 Vertical Exaggeration: A Matter of
Perspective 214
11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves 276
11.3 Locating Earthquakes 279
CHAPTER 9 11.4 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 289
Working with Topographic Maps...........................217 11.5 Predicting Earthquake Hazards:
9.1 Introduction 218 Liquefaction 292
9.2 Contour Lines 218 11.6 Tsunami! 295
9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 218
APPENDIX 11.1
9.3 Reading Topographic Maps 219 SEISMIC ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS 298
9.3.1 Contour Lines and Slope 220
9.3.2 Contour Lines and Elevation 223 CHAPTER 12
9.3.3 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the Water
Flowing? 225
Interpreting Geologic History: What
9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Contour Lines on
Topographic Maps 226
Happened, and When Did It
9.4 Applications of Contour Lines on
Happen? ....................................................................................................... 299
Topographic Maps 226 12.1 Introduction 300
9.5 Topographic Profiles 229 12.2 Physical Criteria for Determining Relative Age
9.5.1 Drawing a Topographic Profile 229 300
9.5.2 Choosing the Vertical Scale 231 12.2.1 The Principles of Original Horizontality and
Superposition 300
APPENDIX 9.1 12.2.2 The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 301
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SYMBOLS 235 12.2.3 The Principle of Inclusions 303
12.2.4 Sedimentary Structures 304
CHAPTER 10 12.2.5 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the
Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Geologic Record 307
Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and Cross 12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating 311
12.3.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession 311
Sections ...................................................................................................... 239 12.3.2 The Geologic Time Scale 312
10.1 Introduction 240 12.3.3 Fossil Age Ranges 313
10.2 Beginning with the Basics: Contacts 12.4 Determining Numerical Ages of Rocks 315
and Attitude 241
12.5 Correlation: Fitting Pieces of the
10.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations 241 Puzzle Together 320
10.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers:
Strike and Dip 243
CHAPTER 13
10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 246
Landscapes Formed by Streams..................... 327
10.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Strata
246
13.1 Introduction 328
10.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds 248
10.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults 250 13.2 How Do Streams Work? 328
10.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities 252
13.3 Stream Valley Types and Features 335
10.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions 253
CONTENTS v
,13.4 Changes in Streams over Time 337 16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes 415
13.5 Stream Networks 342 16.4 Wind and Sand Dunes 422
13.5.1 Drainage Basins 342 16.5 Desertification 428
13.5.2 Drainage Patterns 342
13.6 Changes in Stream-Created Landscapes CHAPTER 17
over Time 346
Shoreline Landscapes......................................................... 431
13.7 When Streams Don’t Seem to Follow the
Rules 351
17.1 Introduction 432
13.8 When There’s Too Much Water: Floods 355
17.2 Factors Controlling Shoreline Formation and
Evolution 432
13.9 Streams, Society, and the 17.2.1 Shoreline Materials 432
Environment 359 17.2.2 Weather and Climate 432
17.2.3 Tidal Range 434
CHAPTER 14 17.2.4 Tectonic Activity 436
17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines 437
Groundwater as a Landscape
17.3 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition 444
Former and Resource.......................................................... 361 17.3.1 How Waves Form 444
14.1 Introduction 362 17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Deposition 445
17.3.3 Longshore Drift 445
14.2 Aquifers and Aquitards 362
17.3.4 Erosional Features 446
14.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater 366 17.3.5 Depositional Features 451
14.4 The Water Table 370 17.4 Human Interaction with Shoreline
Processes 455
14.5 Groundwater Resources and Problems 373
17.4.1 Seawalls 455
17.4.2 Beach Nourishment 456
CHAPTER 15 17.4.3 Jetties 456
Unintended Consequences of Human Shoreline
Glacial Landscapes ................................................................. 383 17.4.4
Management Efforts 457
15.1 Introduction 384 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 459
15.2 How Glaciers Do Their Work 384 17.5.1 Sea-Level Change 459
15.2.1 Types of Glaciers 384 17.5.2 CoastalStorms 460
15.2.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms 385 17.5.3 Tsunamis 465
15.3 Landscapes Produced by Continental
Glaciation 385
CHAPTER 18
15.3.1 Erosional Landscapes 388 Looking to the Future: How Will Humans
15.3.2 Depositional Landscapes 391
Be Affected by Changes in the Earth
15.4 Landscapes Produced by Mountain System?....................................................................................................... 471
Glaciation 399
18.1 Introduction 472
15.5 Glaciers and Climate Change 404
18.2 Changes in the Earth System 472
APPENDIX 15.1
18.2.1 The Nature of Change: Cyclical versus
GLOSSARY OF GLACIAL LANDFORMS 408
Unidirectional 473
18.2.2 Changes in the Geosphere 473
18.2.3 Changes in the Atmosphere 475
CHAPTER 16 18.2.4 Changes in the Cryosphere and
Processes and Landforms in Arid Hydrosphere 484
18.2.5 Changes in the Biosphere 485
Environments...................................................................................... 409
18.3 Humans as Agents of Environmental
16.1 Introduction 410 Change and Extinctions 491
16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 413 Credits 497
vi CONTENTS
,P RE F A C E
This laboratory manual is based on our collective 70-plus years of teaching and
coordinating introductory geology courses. Those experiences have helped us
understand not only how students best learn geologic principles, but also how to
stimulate their engagement with the material to enhance their learning process.
Our manual provides (1) an up-to-date, comprehensive background that addresses
the hands-on tasks at the core of any introductory geology course; (2) patient step-
by-step explanations that are more easily understood by students than those in text-
books; (3) text and exercises that lead students to think like geologists, engaging
them in solving real-life problems important to their lives; and (4) the passion and
excitement that we still feel after decades as teachers and geologists.
Students often ask us how we maintain this enthusiasm. Our answer is to share
with them both the joys and frustrations of facing and solving real-world geologic
problems. You will find many of those types of problems in the following pages—
modified for the introductory nature of the course, but still reflecting their chal-
lenges and the rewards of solving them. This manual brings that experience directly
to the students, engaging them in the learning process by explaining concepts clearly
and providing many avenues for further exploration.
Unique Elements
As you read through this manual, you will find a pedagogical approach that incor-
porates many unique elements, which distinguishes it from other manuals. These
elements include:
Hands-on, inquiry-based pedagogy
We believe that students learn science best by doing science, not by just memoriz-
ing facts.
New “Geotours” Google Earth activities in each lab, authored by M. Scott
Wilkerson of DePauw University, allow students to apply the concept knowledge
gained through their lab and lecture work to real-life sites and phenomena, as a
geologist would. The updated “What Do You Think?” exercises in each chapter
engage students in making assessments and decisions on topics relevant to
their own lives, such as selecting building codes appropriate for local earthquake
hazards (Ch. 2); determining how technological advances that have altered
demands for various mineral resources have impacted their community (Ch. 3);
and explaining what unforeseen and unintended results accompany human
interactions with natu- ral processes (Ch. 13).
Innovative exercises that engage students and provide instructors with choice
Tiered exercises are carefully integrated into the text, leading students to under-
stand concepts for themselves by first reading about the concept and then imme-
diately using what they just learned in the accompanying exercise. These unique
exercises show students how important geologic principles are in our everyday
activities. There are more exercises per chapter than can probably be completed in
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consisting of 532 pages
,
,LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR INTRODUCTORY GEOLOGY
FOURTH EDIT ION
ALLAN LUDMAN
Queens College, New York
STEPHEN MARSHAK
University of Illinois
n
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY NEW
YORK • LONDON
i
,W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William
Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s
Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded
their program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America
and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade
books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred
control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a com-
parable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton
& Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2012, 2010 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. All
rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Fourth Edition
Editor: Jake Schindel
Associate Editor: Rachel Goodman Senior
Project Editor: Thomas Foley
Associate Directors of Production, College: Benjamin Reynolds and Eric Pier-Hocking Copy
Editor: Norma Sims Roche
Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing
Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Digital Media
Editor: Rob Bellinger
Associate Media Editor: Arielle Holstein Editorial
Assistant, Digital Media: Kelly Smith Media
Project Editor: Marcus Van Harpen Marketing
Manager, Geology: Katie Sweeney Design
Director: Hope Miller Goodell Designer: Juan
Paolo Francisco
Photography Editor: Travis Carr
Director of College Permissions: Megan Schindel College
Permissions Specialist: Bethany Salminen
All Topographic Maps created by Mapping Specialists, Ltd.---Madison, WI
Composition and page layout by MPS North America LLC Manufacturing
by LSC Communications---Kendallville, IN
Permission to use copyrighted material is included in the backmatter of this book.
ISBN: 978–0–393–61752–8
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110
wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS 1 2
34567890
,CO N T E NT S
Preface vii 2.5 Processes at Plate Boundaries Revealed by
Earth Features 37
CHAPTER 1 2.5.1 Seafloor Spreading 37
Setting the Stage for Learning 2.5.2 Continental Rifting 39
2.5.3 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness of
about the Earth ..................................................................................... 1 Subduction 41
2.5.4 Transform Faults 43
1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist 2 2.5.5 Hot-Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks 46
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 The Scientific Method 4 2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins 50
1.2 An Introduction to the Earth System 5
CHAPTER 3
1.2.1 The Nature of Matter 5
1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System 6 Minerals............................................................................................................53
1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System 7
3.1 Introduction 54
1.2.4 Temperatures and Pressure in the Earth’s Crust 11
3.2 Classifying Earth Materials 54
1.3 Units for Geologic Measurement 12
1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance 12
3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn’t? 55
1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units 12 3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals 57
1.3.3 Some of the Earth’s “Vital Statistics” 14
3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties 57
3.4.2 Luster 58
1.4 The Challenges of Studying an Entire
Planet 15 3.4.3 Color 58
3.4.4 Streak 58
1.4.1 The Challenge of Scale 15
3.4.5 Hardness 60
1.4.2 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time 19
3.4.6 Crystal Habit 61
1.5 Rates of Geologic Processes 21 3.4.7 Breakage 61
3.4.8 Specific Gravity 65
APPENDIX 1.1
3.4.9 Magnetism 66
METRIC-U.S. CUSTOMARY CONVERSION
CHART 24
3.4.10 Feel 66
3.4.11 Taste 66
3.4.12 Odor 66
3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid 66
CHAPTER 2
3.4.14 Tenacity 66
The Way the Earth Works: Examining
3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens 66
Plate Tectonics................................................................................... 25
3.6 Mineral Classification 68
2.1 Introduction 26
3.7 Minerals and the Economy 68
2.2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 26 3.7.1 What Makes Minerals Valuable? 69
2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics 28
3.7.2 Economic Mineral Deposits 69
2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents 28 APPENDIX 3.1
2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate MINERAL IDENTIFICATION FLOWCHARTS 75
Zones 29
APPENDIX 3.2
2.3.3 Geographic Distribution of Earthquakes and Active
Volcanoes 30 DETERMINATIVE TABLES FOR SYSTEMATIC
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION 78
2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics 33 APPENDIX 3.3
2.4.1 Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Oceanic COMMON MINERALS AND THEIR
Magnetic Anomalies 33
PROPERTIES 82
2.4.2 Direct Measurement of Plate Motion 36
iii
,CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 6
Minerals, Rocks, and the Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret
Rock Cycle ..................................................................................................89 Earth History......................................................................................... 143
4.1 Introduction 90 6.1 Introduction 144
4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks 90 6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution 144
4.2.1 The Rock Cycle 91 6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment 144
6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment
4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals 91 Composition 144
4.3.1 Describing Texture 91 6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity 145
4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures 96 6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 147
6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 147
4.5 Clues about a Rock’s Origin from the 6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 150
Minerals It Contains 100
6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks 152
4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks 100
6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks 153
4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks 103
6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures 157
4.8 The Economic Value of Rocks 106 6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting 157
6.5.2 Grain Shape 159
CHAPTER 5 6.5.3 Sediment “Maturity” 159
6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks 161
Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth
6.6 Sedimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient
History ............................................................................................................... 111 Environments 161
5.1 Introduction 112 6.6.1 Beds and Stratification 161
6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures 161
5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories
of Igneous Rocks 113 6.7 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life 165
5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock 114 6.8 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy 165
5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures 118
5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures 118
5.2.4 Fragmental Textures 118 CHAPTER 7
5.2.5 Grain Shape 120 Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks .............................173
5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and 7.1 Introduction 174
Identification 121
7.2 What Changes during Metamorphism? 174
5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major
Compositional Groups 121 7.2.1 Changes in Texture 174
5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks 122 7.2.2 Changes in Mineralogy 175
7.2.3 Changes in Composition 175
5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas 123
5.4.1 Where and Why Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 7.3 Agents of Metamorphism 175
124 7.3.1 The Effect of Heat 175
5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? 124
7.3.2 The Effect of Pressure 177
5.4.3 Factors Controlling Magma Composition 127 7.3.3 The Effects of Stress 180
5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics 129 7.3.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids 180
5.5.1 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks 7.4 Studying Metamorphic Rocks 180
(Peridotite) 129
7.4.1 How to Determine if a Rock Is Metamorphic 181
5.5.2 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks
(Basalt and Gabbro) 130 7.4.2 Metamorphic Rock Classification and
Identification 182
5.5.3 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Igneous Rocks
(Andesite and Diorite) 130 7.4.3 Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Rocks 182
5.5.4 Plate-Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite and
Rhyolite) 131 7.5 What Can We Learn from a Metamorphic
Rock? 186
5.6 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 132 7.5.1 Identifying the Protolith 187
5.6.1 Volcanic Landforms 132 7.5.2 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism and
5.6.2 Living with Volcanoes 134 Geologic Setting 188
7.5.3 Estimating the Grade of Metamorphism 190
iv CONTENTS
,CHAPTER 8 10.4 Geologic Maps 256
Studying the Earth’s Landforms: Maps 10.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols 256
10.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections 259
and Other Tools ................................................................................197 10.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns 260
8.1 Introduction 198 10.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines 263
8.2 Ways to Portray the Earth’s Surface 198 10.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes 264
8.2.1 Map Projections 198 10.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps 267
8.3 Map Elements 201
8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location 201 CHAPTER 11
8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction 208 Earthquakes and Seismology................................. 275
8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale 211
11.1 Introduction 276
8.4 Vertical Exaggeration: A Matter of
Perspective 214
11.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves 276
11.3 Locating Earthquakes 279
CHAPTER 9 11.4 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 289
Working with Topographic Maps...........................217 11.5 Predicting Earthquake Hazards:
9.1 Introduction 218 Liquefaction 292
9.2 Contour Lines 218 11.6 Tsunami! 295
9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps 218
APPENDIX 11.1
9.3 Reading Topographic Maps 219 SEISMIC ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS 298
9.3.1 Contour Lines and Slope 220
9.3.2 Contour Lines and Elevation 223 CHAPTER 12
9.3.3 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the Water
Flowing? 225
Interpreting Geologic History: What
9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Contour Lines on
Topographic Maps 226
Happened, and When Did It
9.4 Applications of Contour Lines on
Happen? ....................................................................................................... 299
Topographic Maps 226 12.1 Introduction 300
9.5 Topographic Profiles 229 12.2 Physical Criteria for Determining Relative Age
9.5.1 Drawing a Topographic Profile 229 300
9.5.2 Choosing the Vertical Scale 231 12.2.1 The Principles of Original Horizontality and
Superposition 300
APPENDIX 9.1 12.2.2 The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 301
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SYMBOLS 235 12.2.3 The Principle of Inclusions 303
12.2.4 Sedimentary Structures 304
CHAPTER 10 12.2.5 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the
Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Geologic Record 307
Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and Cross 12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating 311
12.3.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession 311
Sections ...................................................................................................... 239 12.3.2 The Geologic Time Scale 312
10.1 Introduction 240 12.3.3 Fossil Age Ranges 313
10.2 Beginning with the Basics: Contacts 12.4 Determining Numerical Ages of Rocks 315
and Attitude 241
12.5 Correlation: Fitting Pieces of the
10.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations 241 Puzzle Together 320
10.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers:
Strike and Dip 243
CHAPTER 13
10.3 Working with Block Diagrams 246
Landscapes Formed by Streams..................... 327
10.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Strata
246
13.1 Introduction 328
10.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds 248
10.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults 250 13.2 How Do Streams Work? 328
10.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities 252
13.3 Stream Valley Types and Features 335
10.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions 253
CONTENTS v
,13.4 Changes in Streams over Time 337 16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes 415
13.5 Stream Networks 342 16.4 Wind and Sand Dunes 422
13.5.1 Drainage Basins 342 16.5 Desertification 428
13.5.2 Drainage Patterns 342
13.6 Changes in Stream-Created Landscapes CHAPTER 17
over Time 346
Shoreline Landscapes......................................................... 431
13.7 When Streams Don’t Seem to Follow the
Rules 351
17.1 Introduction 432
13.8 When There’s Too Much Water: Floods 355
17.2 Factors Controlling Shoreline Formation and
Evolution 432
13.9 Streams, Society, and the 17.2.1 Shoreline Materials 432
Environment 359 17.2.2 Weather and Climate 432
17.2.3 Tidal Range 434
CHAPTER 14 17.2.4 Tectonic Activity 436
17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines 437
Groundwater as a Landscape
17.3 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition 444
Former and Resource.......................................................... 361 17.3.1 How Waves Form 444
14.1 Introduction 362 17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Deposition 445
17.3.3 Longshore Drift 445
14.2 Aquifers and Aquitards 362
17.3.4 Erosional Features 446
14.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater 366 17.3.5 Depositional Features 451
14.4 The Water Table 370 17.4 Human Interaction with Shoreline
Processes 455
14.5 Groundwater Resources and Problems 373
17.4.1 Seawalls 455
17.4.2 Beach Nourishment 456
CHAPTER 15 17.4.3 Jetties 456
Unintended Consequences of Human Shoreline
Glacial Landscapes ................................................................. 383 17.4.4
Management Efforts 457
15.1 Introduction 384 17.5 When Shorelines Become Dangerous 459
15.2 How Glaciers Do Their Work 384 17.5.1 Sea-Level Change 459
15.2.1 Types of Glaciers 384 17.5.2 CoastalStorms 460
15.2.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms 385 17.5.3 Tsunamis 465
15.3 Landscapes Produced by Continental
Glaciation 385
CHAPTER 18
15.3.1 Erosional Landscapes 388 Looking to the Future: How Will Humans
15.3.2 Depositional Landscapes 391
Be Affected by Changes in the Earth
15.4 Landscapes Produced by Mountain System?....................................................................................................... 471
Glaciation 399
18.1 Introduction 472
15.5 Glaciers and Climate Change 404
18.2 Changes in the Earth System 472
APPENDIX 15.1
18.2.1 The Nature of Change: Cyclical versus
GLOSSARY OF GLACIAL LANDFORMS 408
Unidirectional 473
18.2.2 Changes in the Geosphere 473
18.2.3 Changes in the Atmosphere 475
CHAPTER 16 18.2.4 Changes in the Cryosphere and
Processes and Landforms in Arid Hydrosphere 484
18.2.5 Changes in the Biosphere 485
Environments...................................................................................... 409
18.3 Humans as Agents of Environmental
16.1 Introduction 410 Change and Extinctions 491
16.2 Processes in Arid Regions 413 Credits 497
vi CONTENTS
,P RE F A C E
This laboratory manual is based on our collective 70-plus years of teaching and
coordinating introductory geology courses. Those experiences have helped us
understand not only how students best learn geologic principles, but also how to
stimulate their engagement with the material to enhance their learning process.
Our manual provides (1) an up-to-date, comprehensive background that addresses
the hands-on tasks at the core of any introductory geology course; (2) patient step-
by-step explanations that are more easily understood by students than those in text-
books; (3) text and exercises that lead students to think like geologists, engaging
them in solving real-life problems important to their lives; and (4) the passion and
excitement that we still feel after decades as teachers and geologists.
Students often ask us how we maintain this enthusiasm. Our answer is to share
with them both the joys and frustrations of facing and solving real-world geologic
problems. You will find many of those types of problems in the following pages—
modified for the introductory nature of the course, but still reflecting their chal-
lenges and the rewards of solving them. This manual brings that experience directly
to the students, engaging them in the learning process by explaining concepts clearly
and providing many avenues for further exploration.
Unique Elements
As you read through this manual, you will find a pedagogical approach that incor-
porates many unique elements, which distinguishes it from other manuals. These
elements include:
Hands-on, inquiry-based pedagogy
We believe that students learn science best by doing science, not by just memoriz-
ing facts.
New “Geotours” Google Earth activities in each lab, authored by M. Scott
Wilkerson of DePauw University, allow students to apply the concept knowledge
gained through their lab and lecture work to real-life sites and phenomena, as a
geologist would. The updated “What Do You Think?” exercises in each chapter
engage students in making assessments and decisions on topics relevant to
their own lives, such as selecting building codes appropriate for local earthquake
hazards (Ch. 2); determining how technological advances that have altered
demands for various mineral resources have impacted their community (Ch. 3);
and explaining what unforeseen and unintended results accompany human
interactions with natu- ral processes (Ch. 13).
Innovative exercises that engage students and provide instructors with choice
Tiered exercises are carefully integrated into the text, leading students to under-
stand concepts for themselves by first reading about the concept and then imme-
diately using what they just learned in the accompanying exercise. These unique
exercises show students how important geologic principles are in our everyday
activities. There are more exercises per chapter than can probably be completed in
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