Prehistoric Age in India
Prehistoric Age refers to the time when there was no writing and development. It consists of five periods
- Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age. It is one of the important topics under
Ancient Indian History for IAS Exam.
Prehistoric India
History
History (from the Greek word - Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by investigation) is the
study of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery,
collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these events.
It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.
1. Pre-history - Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history
is represented by the three stone ages.
2. Proto-history - It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or
organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate
civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains undeciphered, however since its
existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic
civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic
cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists.
3. History - The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on
written records and archaeological sources constitute history.
Construction of Ancient Indian History
The sources which help in reconstructing history are:
1. Non-literary sources
2. Literary sources - which include religious literature & secular literature
Non-Literary Sources
• Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest coins found
in India contained only a few symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins
mentioned the names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate the region
of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially Indo-
Greeks who came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE. Coins throw
light on the economic history of different dynasties and also provide input on different parameters
involved such as the script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in
terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is called Numismatics).
• Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the digging of the old mounds in
a systematic manner, in successive layers and enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is
, called Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are subjected to
various kinds of examinations. Their dates are fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example,
excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived
in that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the life of the people living in
the Deccan and south India before 300 BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an
examination of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.
• Inscriptions/Prashastis - (The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called epigraphy).
Writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone and metals like copper which usually record some
achievements, ideas, royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and
administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state policy issued by Ashoka and
inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, kings of the Deccan.
• Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came the
Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich
account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
o Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided valuable information about the
Mauryan society and administration.
o “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy's Geography” both written in Greek give
valuable information about the ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman
empire.
o Fa-Hein, a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.
o Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King
Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.
Literary Sources
• Religious Literature: The religious literature throws light on the social, economic as well as cultural
conditions of the ancient Indian period. Some of the sources are:
o The Four Vedas - The Vedas may be assigned to c.1500 - 500 BCE. The Rigveda mainly contains
prayers while the later Vedic texts (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not only
prayers but rituals, magic and mythological stories. Read more on the four Vedas in the linked
article.
o Upanishads - The Upanishads (Vedanta) contain philosophical discussions on “Atma” and
“Paramatma”.
o Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana - Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is older in age and
possibly reflects the state of affairs from the 10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Originally
it consisted of 8800 verses (called Jaya Samhita). The final compilation brought the verses to
1,00,000 which came to be known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. It contains
narrative, descriptive and didactic material. The Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses
which were later raised to 24000. This epic also has its didactic portions which were added later.
o Sutras - Sutras contain ritual literature such as Shrautasutras (which include sacrifices, royal
coronation) and Grihya Sutras (which include domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage,
funeral, etc.)
o Buddhist religious texts - The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali language and are
commonly known as Tripitaka (three baskets) - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. These texts throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of that era. They
also make references to political events in the age of the Buddha. Read more on Buddhism.
o Jaina’s religious texts - The Jaina texts commonly called “angas”, were written in the Prakrit
language, and contain philosophical concepts of the Jainas. They contain many texts which help
to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The
Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Read more on Jainism.
Prehistoric Age refers to the time when there was no writing and development. It consists of five periods
- Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age. It is one of the important topics under
Ancient Indian History for IAS Exam.
Prehistoric India
History
History (from the Greek word - Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by investigation) is the
study of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery,
collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of information about these events.
It is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.
1. Pre-history - Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history
is represented by the three stone ages.
2. Proto-history - It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or
organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate
civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains undeciphered, however since its
existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic
civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic
cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists.
3. History - The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on
written records and archaeological sources constitute history.
Construction of Ancient Indian History
The sources which help in reconstructing history are:
1. Non-literary sources
2. Literary sources - which include religious literature & secular literature
Non-Literary Sources
• Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest coins found
in India contained only a few symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins
mentioned the names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate the region
of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially Indo-
Greeks who came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE. Coins throw
light on the economic history of different dynasties and also provide input on different parameters
involved such as the script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in
terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is called Numismatics).
• Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the digging of the old mounds in
a systematic manner, in successive layers and enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is
, called Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are subjected to
various kinds of examinations. Their dates are fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example,
excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived
in that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the life of the people living in
the Deccan and south India before 300 BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an
examination of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.
• Inscriptions/Prashastis - (The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called epigraphy).
Writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone and metals like copper which usually record some
achievements, ideas, royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and
administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state policy issued by Ashoka and
inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, kings of the Deccan.
• Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came the
Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich
account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
o Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided valuable information about the
Mauryan society and administration.
o “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy's Geography” both written in Greek give
valuable information about the ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman
empire.
o Fa-Hein, a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.
o Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King
Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.
Literary Sources
• Religious Literature: The religious literature throws light on the social, economic as well as cultural
conditions of the ancient Indian period. Some of the sources are:
o The Four Vedas - The Vedas may be assigned to c.1500 - 500 BCE. The Rigveda mainly contains
prayers while the later Vedic texts (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not only
prayers but rituals, magic and mythological stories. Read more on the four Vedas in the linked
article.
o Upanishads - The Upanishads (Vedanta) contain philosophical discussions on “Atma” and
“Paramatma”.
o Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana - Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is older in age and
possibly reflects the state of affairs from the 10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Originally
it consisted of 8800 verses (called Jaya Samhita). The final compilation brought the verses to
1,00,000 which came to be known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. It contains
narrative, descriptive and didactic material. The Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses
which were later raised to 24000. This epic also has its didactic portions which were added later.
o Sutras - Sutras contain ritual literature such as Shrautasutras (which include sacrifices, royal
coronation) and Grihya Sutras (which include domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage,
funeral, etc.)
o Buddhist religious texts - The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali language and are
commonly known as Tripitaka (three baskets) - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. These texts throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of that era. They
also make references to political events in the age of the Buddha. Read more on Buddhism.
o Jaina’s religious texts - The Jaina texts commonly called “angas”, were written in the Prakrit
language, and contain philosophical concepts of the Jainas. They contain many texts which help
to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The
Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Read more on Jainism.
