ASU BIO 331 EXAM 3 COMPLETE QUESTIONS AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS WITH RATIONALES 2025

Neurobiology - -The study of the nervous system of living things and how it helps the living things learn and react Instinctive behavior - -An innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species Fixed-action pattern - -A sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus Sign stimulus - -External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern. Innate releasing mechanism - -many neuronal components that wrap in detection of the stimulus, internal processing of the stimulus, and appropriate responsiveness to the stimulus. First, sensory neurons receive and decode the information from the environment. This neural information (an "action potential") is now transmitted along axons and through dendrites to relay neurons (or interneurons) in dedicated portions of the brain or spinal cord, which then redirect the information via motor neurons back out to the body (i.e. innervating muscle tissue) for proper skeletomuscular response Sensory neurons - -Neurons that receive and decode information from the environment Action potential - -Neural information transmitted along axons and through dendrites Motor neurons - -Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands Redundancy - -Peak stimulus in response to potential threat- a backup (redundant) system of detection and emergency response Specialization - -Tuning in, with special sensitivity, to particular elements of a stimulus Salience - -A signal that is noticeable compared to the surrounding stimuli (ex a beeping alarm is more noticeable and you will hear it even with the background noise of a fan/ac) Neural acclimation - -Irrelevant stimuli that your nervous system has tuned out (ex: the feeling of your clothes on your skin) Central pattern generator - -neural circuitry that is responsible for generating the rhythmic pattern of a behavior such as walking Circadian rhythm - -the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle ZENK - -A gene that codes for a protein called ZENK, expressed when a bird hears the songs of its own species. ZENK protein is a transcription factor. Because of the genes it regulates, ZENK influences how one nerve cell communicates with the others Syrinx - -the sound-producing structure of birds that is analogous to the larynx in humans HVC - -high vocal center nucleus- a dense collection of neurons in birds- connects to RA, communicates with nXIlts to exert control over singing behavior nXIIts - -connects to syrinx, part of the control center for singing behavior. the tracheosyringeal portion of the twelfth cranial nerve LMAN - -Lateral Magnocellular nucleus of the Anterior Nidopallium brain nuclei essential for song learning (rather than production) Projects to area X RA - -Robust nucleus of the Arcopallium connects the HVC to the nXIIts, connects to the syrinx Destruction of the pathway between RA and nXIIts has devastating effects on a bird's ability to sing larger in males than females in species where males sing and females don't Area X - -Another nucleus in the bird forebrain that is important for song learning Hormones - -Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another "molecules circulated within the body that ultimately act within a particular tissue in the body to regulate various processes within the animal including behavior" Activational control - -ability to perform an action when the dominant/natural response would be inhibition. Immediate input/control Organizational control - -according to the developmental arrangement of the system Steroid hormones - -cholesterol derived hormones, longer half life, slow acting, can affect gene expression, lipid soluble. sex steroids (testosterone/estrogen), glucocorticoids (corticosterone/cortisol) Sex steroid - -any of the steroid hormones that are active in sexual and reproductive processes Mineralocorticoid - -A steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulates salt and water homeostasis. Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid Glucocorticoid - -steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex; regulates glucose, fat, and protein metabolism, help regulate stress (ex corticosterone/cortisol) Aldosterone - --steroid hormone -secreted within adrenal cortex -response to decreased blood volume -increases Na+ absorption= increased H2O absorption -increases K+ excretion primary mineralocorticoid Testosterone - -a steroid hormone secreted by the testicles and the adrenal cortex to stimulate the development of male secondary sex characteristics Estrogen - -steroid hormone that is found in greater quantities in women than men and contributes to female sexual characteristics and development the other primary sex steroid that modulates mating, and interestingly it can play important roles in both sexes as well and can be synthesized (with proper enzyme activity) from testosterone! In female rhesus monkeys, estrogen fosters the sequences of behaviors that females exhibit with increasing interest in a male partner Corticosterone - -A steroid hormone, produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex, that increases blood glucose and prepares the body for stress. The major glucocorticoid hormone in most reptiles, birds, and many mammals. Peptide hormones - -releasing/growth hormones, water soluble, faster acting than steroid hormones, binds surface membrane receptors, insulin, LH/FSH, prolactin, oxytocin LH - -Luteinizing hormone, ovulation and egg release, maturation of egg, release of testosterone in males. peptide hormone FSH - -follicle-stimulating hormone (secreted by the pituitary gland). peptide hormone Prolactin - -Peptide hormone released by anterior pituitary which promotes lactation. the parental hormone, as it often surges from the anterior pituitary in direct response to breeding cues Oxytocin - -A peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland to trigger lactation, childbirth, pair bonding. Monoamine hormones - -tryptophan or tyrosine based hormones, ring structure, dopamine, serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine Dopamine - -A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. Seratonin - -A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; linked to depression and treated by Prozac. (Blocks reuptake of seratonin, activating more seratonin in neural pathways, therefore elevating mood.) Melatonin - -A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. helps regulate time-keeping/perception of time, tunes the physiological clock Epinephrine - -Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline. catalyzes a nearly immediate neurophysiological 'fight-or-flight' response via the central nervous system (including elevated heart rate, blood circulation, muscle performance, and sugar mobilization for energy) Aromatase - -enzyme that converts testosterone to estradiol Sex determination - -The biological mechanism that determines whether an organism will develop as a male or female XY-M and XX-F Challenge hypothesis - -male-male interactions stimulate testosterone production and sustain subsequent aggressive behavior Immunosuppression - -reduction in the activity of the body's immune system Elevated metabolism - -a metabolism burning more calories at rest Sodium retention - -The accumulation of sodium in the blood and cells of the body, promoted by aldosterone Fight-or-flight response - -an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action Primary sexual traits - -gonads and genitalia Secondary sexual traits - -traits, such as the distribution of body fat, that differ between the sexes but do not have a direct role in reproduction Anterior pituitary - -endocrine gland that synthesizes and secretes hormones in response to hormones from the hypothalamus Posterior pituitary - -extension of the brain that releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus; along with the infundibulum, it is also referred to as the neurohypophysis Hypothalamus - -A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. Neurotransmitter - -chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons Seek-and-subdue - -Active pursuit of food/prey over space and time Sit-and-wait - -Strategic spatiotemporal positioning (often hiding) of predator to sneak up on and surprise prey Dispersed prey - -Distribution of hunted animal over a wide area Mobile prey - -Hunted animal that moves about freely Luring - -Strategic use of deceptive communication to trick prey into being consumed by predator Filter-feeding - -Frequent sampling of the environment (typically in water) to strain small resources for consumption Agriculture - -Active environmental manipulation to cultivate local food resources Scavenging - -Consumption of dead, organic material Solitary foraging - -when animals find, capture and consume their prey alone Social foraging - -occur among kinship and non-kinship groups; in-group compeittion occurs when resources are scarce Search image - -a learned mental image that helps the predator locate and capture food Pattern recognition - -the stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified Overt communication - -communication that is explicit, direct, expressed, manifest Covert information transfer - -Exchange of information with deception/eavesdropping (tricking prey) Specialist - -A consumer that primarily eats one specific organism or feeds on a very small number of organisms. Generalist - -Species that does not rely on a single source of prey Coprophagy - -consumption of feces Geophagy - -the practice of eating earth, especially chalk or clay in famine-stricken regions Optimal foraging theory - -Optimal foraging theory makes predictions about how animals maximize fitness while foraging. the optimization of food type, patch choice, time spent in different patches, or patterns and speed of movement The basis of all optimal foraging models is that food has obvious benefits in terms of energy intake, but finding food comes with costs in terms of the time and energy spent locating it (search time) and accessing it (handling time) Marginal value theorem - -predicts that an animal should leave a patch when its rate of food intake in that patch drops below the average rate for the habitat Central place foraging model - -examines how organisms can optimize foraging rates while traveling through patches to locate food, before returning home with those food items Predator defense mechanisms - -1) Behaviors- self-vigilance, unpredictable travel, fleeing, faking injury/death, cooperative detection (sentinel behavior), safe havens, group life, physical aggression, cooperative defense (mobbing), threat (deimatic/startle) displays, stotting 2) Morphology- physical aggressive/defensive structures, impenetrable armor, disposable parts, stingers 3) Chromatic/visual- crypsis (or camouflage), disruptive coloration, countershading, aposematism, mimicry, pursuit-deterrent signals 4) Auditory- alarm calling, hissing, rattling, distress call 5) Chemical/tactile- poison, toxins, alarm signals Self-vigilance - -Alertly watchful especially to avoid danger (white-tailed deer look up (feeding glances) in search of nearby predators) Unpredictable travel - -Using different travel routes to confuse predators (Parent birds visiting their nest to feed offspring by various routes) Fleeing - -running away; vanishing Faking injury - -An antipredator behavior that involves feigning injury to distract a predator Cooperative detection - -Individuals in a society of meerkats will take turns on predator 'lookout duty', while others in their kin group are searching the desert sand for rare food items (e.g. insects, lizards) Safe havens - -Beyond simple hiding spots like caves and tree cavities, some organisms receive protection from predators by other organisms, such as cleaner fish or acacia ants Group life - -Simply living around others, as in this group of spider crabs, offers many anti-predator benefits, including more likely detection of a predator by your group as well as benefits from the "dilution" (safety in numbers) or "selfish-herd" (strategic positioning in a group so that it serves to spatially shield an individual from danger) effects Physical aggression - -When an individual responds to a predator's presence by directly attacking it, like a zebra to a cheetah Mobbing - -also known as cooperative defense, When members of a group combine to fight against a larger, more threatening predator, such as gulls mobbing a raven Threat display - -also, deimatic/startle displays Animals like frilled lizards will hiss and extend out their frills, often in a chase to intimidate and ward off a nearby predator. These can also involve explosive or threatening movements or postures that function to momentarily startle or distract a predator Stotting - -stiff-legged jumping with all 4 legs off ground Exhibited by gazelles and relatives where they spring high into the air with an arched back and stiff, as an honest signal that this prey item would be difficult to catch Alarm calling - -A black-tailed prairie dog gives vocal notification to other group members (often kin or partners) that a predator is present. Some animals give unique alarm calls that identify particular threats (like when the length of a chickadee's call reveals the type of predator that is nearby Impenetrable armor - -Shells provide bivalves, turtles/tortoises, and armadillos with shelter into which they can escape in place Disposable parts - -Porcupines can puncture predators with their difficult-to-remove quills. Also many lizards will drop their tails when pursued by a predator as a means of offering a nutritional reward, while allowing them to escape Stingers - -Animals like bees/wasps, scorpions, and jellyfish will inject their predators (and in some cases their prey) with venom Crypsis - -also, camouflage Military organizations and animals like squid have used background-matching as an exemplary hiding strategy Disruptive coloration - -A form of camouflage, in creatures like leopards, that breaks up the outline of an animal with a pattern that is difficult to distinguish (i.e. hard to identify head v. tail) Countershading - -protective coloration of some animals in which parts normally in shadow are light and those exposed to the sky are dark. Aposematism - -bright conspicuous markings of certain distasteful or poisonous animals, which predators recognize and learn to avoid Batesian mimicry - -A form of defensive mimicry by prey in which a mimic that is palatable resembles a model that is noxious Mullerian mimicry - -A form of defensive mimicry by prey in which one noxious species resembles another noxious species Aggressive mimicry - -"Wolf in sheep's clothing". A form of mimicry exhibited by predators (or parasites/parasitoids), in which several species share the resemblance of a harmless model in order to avoid being recognized by their prey/host Automimicry - -Largely considered as a form of defensive mimicry, this is when one part of the body of an individual resembles another part (i.e. a tail looks like a head) Imperfect mimicry - -A class of mimicry recognized when a mimic only loosely resembles its model Wasmannian mimicry - -A special case of defensive mimicry, largely restricted to the social insects, in which animals resemble ants in a colony in order to hide and/or exploit resources Pursuit-deterrent signals - -Patterns of movement that inform a predator that it has been seen and the prey is difficult to catch Rattling - -shaking and hitting together; Auditory signal in animals like rattlesnakes to warn of impending danger Distress call - -Animals in immediate danger, including in the grasp/bite of a predator, may give even more urgent screams, as a last-ditch attempt to startle the predator and perhaps even recruit others, including the predator of that predator, to visit, which might lead to its release Poison - -a substance that causes illness, injury or death if taken into the body or produced within the body. Ingested toxins - -poisons one might eat or drink Alarm signals - -A form of tactile (vibrational) anti predator adaptations A rare form of communication in which honey bees alert colony-mates to a hive attack by wasps by headbutting them and emitting short vibrational pulses Hissing - -Vocal component of a threat display in, for example, cats or several reptiles Landscape of fear - -the phenomenon in which prey animals change their foraging behaviors based on an assessment of where in their landscape holds the highest risk of predation Environment of evolutionary adaptedness - -researchers are more likely to focus on studies of human populations in historical, undeveloped environments (we call this our environment of evolutionary adaptedness), such as hunter-gatherer cultures Bilateral symmetry - -Body plan in which only a single, imaginary line can divide the body into two equal halves. Resource procurement - -The action of obtaining a mate with the supplies, materials, money, or other necessary assets Youthfulness - -a feminine feature favored by men- looking youthful and remaining "young at heart" despite aging chronologically Ovulatory shift hypothesis - -proposes that women experience elevated sexual attraction to men with characteristics that reflect male genetic quality when the women are most fertile (in other words, on high- versus low-fertility days of the women's menstrual cycle) (Gildersleeve et al. 2014). More generally, the sexual preferences of women, as well as men, change in relation to the menstrual cycle Sexual conflict - -the evolution of phenotypic characteristics that confer a fitness benefit to one sex but a fitness cost to the other Extra-marital affairs - -also, extra-pair fertilizations. technically can increase male fitness with many partners raising his children Mate switching hypothesis - -partnered women are constantly assessing their partner's mate value, their own mate value, and the value (and interest) of potential mates (Buss et al. 2017). Extramarital affairs then serve as a way to assess potential alternative mates, as well as a form of mate insurance by securing a backup partner should a switch become necessary. Paternity assurance - -a males assurance that the offspring produced are his own- animals have developed many ways to ensure this: -spermatophores and sperm plugs -sperm replacement -long copulation duration -behavior modifying substances Mate guarding - -a behavior in which one partner prevents the other partner from participating in extra-pair copulations Offspring recognition - -Due to the risk of lost paternity due to unfaithful wives, men are well known to pay special attent