IMMUNE SYSTEM STUDY GUIDE, (1) LE
DIGESTION SYSTEM,
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, ANATOMY
AND PHYSIOLOGY QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS PASS GUARANTEED 100%
1. Differentiate between nonspecific and specific defenses. - Answer ✅• Nonspecific defense
(innate immunity)
o Responds within minutes to protect body from foreign substances
o 1st line of defense = external body membranes like intact skin and mucosae
o 2nd line of defense = called into action when 1st line of defense has been penetrated
Relies on internal defenses such as antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells that
inhibit the spread of foreign bodies
Hallmark is inflammation
• Specific defense (adaptive immunity)
o Attacks particular foreign substances
o 3rd line of defense
o Takes more time to mount than innate response
2. Which of the above defenses (#1) is innate? Which is acquired after birth? - Answer ✅•
Innate = nonspecific defense
• After birth = specific defense (adaptive)
@2025 Exam Material 1
,1. What role do the skin and mucous membranes play in protecting the body? - Answer ✅•
Physical barriers - contain keratin that is resistant to most weak acids and bases and to bacterial
enzymes and toxin
• Produce productive chemicals
4. Identify the accessory structures and secretions which increase the effectiveness of the
body's mechanical barriers. - Answer ✅• Accessory structures
o Respiratory tract mucosae = has structural modifications that counteract potential invaders
o Mucus coated hairs in nose = trap inhaled particles
o Cilia on mucosa of upper respiratory tract = sweep dust- and bacteria-laden mucus toward
mouth & prevent it from entering lower respiratory passages
• Secretions
o Acid - acid mantle of skin, vagina, and stomach inhibits bacterial growth
o Enzymes - lysozymes of saliva, respiratory mucus, and lacrimal fluid of eye destroy bacteria -
in stomach, kill many microorganisms
o Mucin - dissolved in water forms mucus
In digestive and respiratory pathways and traps microorganisms
In saliva traps microorganism and washes them out of mouth into stomach --> digested
o Defensins - broad-spectrum anti-microbial peptides
Secreted by mucus membrane and skin
Level of defensins increases dramatically in response to inflammation
Disrupts microbial membranes to control bacterial and fungal colonization in exposed areas
o Other chemicals - lipids in sebum and dermcidin in eccrine sweat are toxic to bacteria
5. What are the two primary types of phagocytes in the body? - Answer ✅• Neutrophils =
become phagocytic on encountering infectious material in tissues
• Macrophages = derive from monocytes that leave bloodstream, enter tissues, and develop
into macrophages
@2025 Exam Material 2
,6. Compare and contrast wandering and fixed macrophages. - Answer ✅• Wandering (free)
macrophages = wander throughout tissue spaces in search of cellular debris or "foreign
invaders"
• Fixed macrophages = permanent residents of particular organs
7. Name and describe the five general steps involved in phagocytosis. - Answer ✅1. Phagocyte
adheres to pathogens/debris
2. Phagocyte forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome
3. Phagosome + lysosome phagolysosome
4. Lysosomal enzymes digest the particles, leaving a residual body
5. Exocytosis of vesicle removes indigestible and residual material
8. What cellular organelle contains the enzymes required for intracellular digestion of microbes
and particulate matter? - Answer ✅Lysosome
9. What is a natural killer (NK) cell? - Answer ✅• Unique group of defensive cells that can lyse
and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before adaptive immune system is activated
• Part of small group of large granular lymphocytes
10. What role do NK cells play in defending the body? - Answer ✅• Respond quickly to
cancer/virus-infected cells, before adaptive system is able to
• Because they are far less selective than lymphocytes of adaptive immune system, they
eliminate a variety of infected/cancerous cells by detecting general abnormalities such as lack of
"self" cell-surface proteins
11. How do NK cells destroy their target cells? - Answer ✅Not phagocytic - kill by directly
contacting target cell, inducing it to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)
@2025 Exam Material 3
, 12. What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation? - Answer ✅1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. (Impaired function = sometimes considered a 5th cardinal sign)
13. Identify and describe the major events of the inflammation process. - Answer ✅• Release of
inflammatory chemicals (histamine, complement, kinins, prostaglandins, etc.)
o Arterioles dilate
Local hyperemia --> heat and redness
Locally increased temperature increases metabolic rate of cells
o Increased capillary permeability --> pain
o Attract neutrophils and lymphocytes to area (chemotaxis)
Capillaries leak fluid (exudate formation)
• Leaked protein rich fluid in tissue spaces --> pain and swelling --> possible temporary
impairment of function
• Leaked clotting proteins form interstitial clots that wall off area to prevent injury to
surrounding tissue --> temporary fibrin patch forms scaffolding for repair
14. What physiologic events underlie each of cardinal signs of inflammation? - Answer ✅•
Redness and heat are due to hyperemia (congestion of blood) that occurs when arterioles dilate
• Swelling and pain are due to the excretion of exudate from the blood into tissue spaces
• Pain also from release of bacterial toxins and the sensitizing effects of prostaglandins and
kinins
15. Describe the process of phagocytic mobilization. - Answer ✅1. Leukocytosis = neutrophils
enter blood from bone marrow
@2025 Exam Material 4
DIGESTION SYSTEM,
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, ANATOMY
AND PHYSIOLOGY QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS PASS GUARANTEED 100%
1. Differentiate between nonspecific and specific defenses. - Answer ✅• Nonspecific defense
(innate immunity)
o Responds within minutes to protect body from foreign substances
o 1st line of defense = external body membranes like intact skin and mucosae
o 2nd line of defense = called into action when 1st line of defense has been penetrated
Relies on internal defenses such as antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells that
inhibit the spread of foreign bodies
Hallmark is inflammation
• Specific defense (adaptive immunity)
o Attacks particular foreign substances
o 3rd line of defense
o Takes more time to mount than innate response
2. Which of the above defenses (#1) is innate? Which is acquired after birth? - Answer ✅•
Innate = nonspecific defense
• After birth = specific defense (adaptive)
@2025 Exam Material 1
,1. What role do the skin and mucous membranes play in protecting the body? - Answer ✅•
Physical barriers - contain keratin that is resistant to most weak acids and bases and to bacterial
enzymes and toxin
• Produce productive chemicals
4. Identify the accessory structures and secretions which increase the effectiveness of the
body's mechanical barriers. - Answer ✅• Accessory structures
o Respiratory tract mucosae = has structural modifications that counteract potential invaders
o Mucus coated hairs in nose = trap inhaled particles
o Cilia on mucosa of upper respiratory tract = sweep dust- and bacteria-laden mucus toward
mouth & prevent it from entering lower respiratory passages
• Secretions
o Acid - acid mantle of skin, vagina, and stomach inhibits bacterial growth
o Enzymes - lysozymes of saliva, respiratory mucus, and lacrimal fluid of eye destroy bacteria -
in stomach, kill many microorganisms
o Mucin - dissolved in water forms mucus
In digestive and respiratory pathways and traps microorganisms
In saliva traps microorganism and washes them out of mouth into stomach --> digested
o Defensins - broad-spectrum anti-microbial peptides
Secreted by mucus membrane and skin
Level of defensins increases dramatically in response to inflammation
Disrupts microbial membranes to control bacterial and fungal colonization in exposed areas
o Other chemicals - lipids in sebum and dermcidin in eccrine sweat are toxic to bacteria
5. What are the two primary types of phagocytes in the body? - Answer ✅• Neutrophils =
become phagocytic on encountering infectious material in tissues
• Macrophages = derive from monocytes that leave bloodstream, enter tissues, and develop
into macrophages
@2025 Exam Material 2
,6. Compare and contrast wandering and fixed macrophages. - Answer ✅• Wandering (free)
macrophages = wander throughout tissue spaces in search of cellular debris or "foreign
invaders"
• Fixed macrophages = permanent residents of particular organs
7. Name and describe the five general steps involved in phagocytosis. - Answer ✅1. Phagocyte
adheres to pathogens/debris
2. Phagocyte forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome
3. Phagosome + lysosome phagolysosome
4. Lysosomal enzymes digest the particles, leaving a residual body
5. Exocytosis of vesicle removes indigestible and residual material
8. What cellular organelle contains the enzymes required for intracellular digestion of microbes
and particulate matter? - Answer ✅Lysosome
9. What is a natural killer (NK) cell? - Answer ✅• Unique group of defensive cells that can lyse
and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before adaptive immune system is activated
• Part of small group of large granular lymphocytes
10. What role do NK cells play in defending the body? - Answer ✅• Respond quickly to
cancer/virus-infected cells, before adaptive system is able to
• Because they are far less selective than lymphocytes of adaptive immune system, they
eliminate a variety of infected/cancerous cells by detecting general abnormalities such as lack of
"self" cell-surface proteins
11. How do NK cells destroy their target cells? - Answer ✅Not phagocytic - kill by directly
contacting target cell, inducing it to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)
@2025 Exam Material 3
, 12. What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation? - Answer ✅1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. (Impaired function = sometimes considered a 5th cardinal sign)
13. Identify and describe the major events of the inflammation process. - Answer ✅• Release of
inflammatory chemicals (histamine, complement, kinins, prostaglandins, etc.)
o Arterioles dilate
Local hyperemia --> heat and redness
Locally increased temperature increases metabolic rate of cells
o Increased capillary permeability --> pain
o Attract neutrophils and lymphocytes to area (chemotaxis)
Capillaries leak fluid (exudate formation)
• Leaked protein rich fluid in tissue spaces --> pain and swelling --> possible temporary
impairment of function
• Leaked clotting proteins form interstitial clots that wall off area to prevent injury to
surrounding tissue --> temporary fibrin patch forms scaffolding for repair
14. What physiologic events underlie each of cardinal signs of inflammation? - Answer ✅•
Redness and heat are due to hyperemia (congestion of blood) that occurs when arterioles dilate
• Swelling and pain are due to the excretion of exudate from the blood into tissue spaces
• Pain also from release of bacterial toxins and the sensitizing effects of prostaglandins and
kinins
15. Describe the process of phagocytic mobilization. - Answer ✅1. Leukocytosis = neutrophils
enter blood from bone marrow
@2025 Exam Material 4
