The American Age
The Tumultuous Sixties, 1960–1968
CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 26 examines the impact of the tumultuous
1960s on American society. President Kennedy’s policies and actions in the
field of foreign policy were shaped by his acceptance of the containment
doctrine and his preference for a bold, interventionist foreign policy. In its
quest for friends in the Third World and ultimate victory in the Cold War, the
Kennedy administration adopted the policy of “nation building” that,
through such agencies as the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps,
would “help developing nations through the early stages of nationhood.”
The Kennedy administration also adopted the concept of
“counterinsurgency,” which was intended “to defeat revolutionaries who
challenged pro-American Third World governments.” Such policies
perpetuated an idea that had long been part of American foreign policy: that
other people cannot solve their own problems and that the American
economic and governmental model can be transferred intact to other
societies. Historian William Appleman Williams believed that such thinking
led to “the tragedy of American diplomacy,” and historian Arthur M.
Schlesinger Jr. refers to it as “a ghastly illusion.” Although Kennedy’s activist
approach to foreign policy helped bring the world to the brink of nuclear
disaster in the Cuban missile crisis, in the aftermath of that crisis steps were
taken by both superpowers that served to lessen tension and hostility
between them. However, the arms race accelerated during both the
Kennedy and Johnson years, and the United States and the Soviet Union
continued to vie for friends in the Third World. Young African Americans,
through sit-ins, reinvigorated the civil rights movement. Although African
American civil rights leaders were committed to the philosophy of non-
violence, violence was present as a resistance to Freedom Rides, the
Freedom Summer of 1964, and the Birmingham Children’s Crusade. In the
,face of violent challenges from southern segregationists to an expanding
black civil-rights movement, the Kennedy administration gradually
committed itself to a decisive stand in favor of black equality. Only after the
March on Washington, continuing racial violence, and Kennedy’s
assassination did Congress finally pass civil rights legislation. The section
“Liberalism and the Great Society” covers the legislative accomplishments of
the Johnson administration—the most sweeping reform legislation since
1935. This legislation comprised the Civil Rights Act of 1964, establishment
of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Voting Rights Act of
1965, and legislation associated with Johnson’s War on Poverty. The authors
look closely at the legislation that constituted the War on Poverty and
discuss the problems and successes of this program. The authors then turn
to a discussion of the course of American involvement in Vietnam from
deepening U.S. involvement during the Kennedy administration to the
escalation of and Americanization of the war during the Johnson
administration. This discussion is based on the thesis that disaster befell the
United States in Vietnam because of fear in the Johnson administration that
America’s credibility would suffer in the eyes of friends and foes around the
world if the nation failed to achieve its stated goals in Southeast Asia. As the
three branches of the federal government slowly began to deal with such
longstanding American problems as poverty and minority rights, frustrations
that had built up over generations of inaction manifested themselves.
Events convinced civil-rights activists in the South that the “power
structure” in American society was not to be trusted. Northern blacks began
to reach the same conclusions. Both the civil-rights movement and
Johnson’s antipoverty programs had offered African Americans hope for a
better day in American society. However, as discussion of the social,
economic, and political plight of urban blacks reveals, that hope had not
been fulfilled. Among other factors, unfulfilled expectations and the
continued display of wealth and possessions in the consumer-oriented
American society led to the urban riots of the 1960s. Militant black leaders
gained prominence and questioned Martin Luther King’s philosophy of
nonviolence as well as his goal of integration. Malcolm X, Stokely
, Carmichael, and the Black Panther party called for “black power” within the
context of Black Nationalism. César Chávez and Delores Huerta advocated
for workers’ rights for Mexican Americans. Some whites involved in the civil
rights movement began to become disillusioned with American society.
Although their disillusionment stemmed from different sources than that of
blacks, it led to the political and social activism associated with the New Left
and the counterculture. The authors discuss the emergence, characteristics,
and goals of both of these groups as well as the reaction of the middle class
to their attacks on traditional values. The forces of frustration, rage, and
anger born of racism, sexism, poverty, disillusionment, materialism, and the
revolution of rising expectations practically ripped America apart in the
tumult of 1968. As the Vietnam War escalated and the New Left and the
counterculture found common cause in their antiwar stance, the middle
class became more and more convinced that traditional society was under
siege. The chapter ends with a discussion of the divisive presidential election
of 1968.
SECTION-BY-SECTION IDENTIFICATIONS AND FOCUS QUESTIONS
Introduction
Identify each of the following items. That is, give an explanation or
description of the item. Answer these questions:
Who? What? Where? When?
Then explain the historical significance of each item. That is, establish the
historical context of the item: establish the item as the result of other
factors
existing in the society under study (that is, answer the question, Why?) and
establish the political, social, economic and/or cultural consequences of the
item (that is, answer the question, So What?)
Ezell Blair, Franklin McCain, Joe McNeil, David Richmond, and the
The Tumultuous Sixties, 1960–1968
CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 26 examines the impact of the tumultuous
1960s on American society. President Kennedy’s policies and actions in the
field of foreign policy were shaped by his acceptance of the containment
doctrine and his preference for a bold, interventionist foreign policy. In its
quest for friends in the Third World and ultimate victory in the Cold War, the
Kennedy administration adopted the policy of “nation building” that,
through such agencies as the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps,
would “help developing nations through the early stages of nationhood.”
The Kennedy administration also adopted the concept of
“counterinsurgency,” which was intended “to defeat revolutionaries who
challenged pro-American Third World governments.” Such policies
perpetuated an idea that had long been part of American foreign policy: that
other people cannot solve their own problems and that the American
economic and governmental model can be transferred intact to other
societies. Historian William Appleman Williams believed that such thinking
led to “the tragedy of American diplomacy,” and historian Arthur M.
Schlesinger Jr. refers to it as “a ghastly illusion.” Although Kennedy’s activist
approach to foreign policy helped bring the world to the brink of nuclear
disaster in the Cuban missile crisis, in the aftermath of that crisis steps were
taken by both superpowers that served to lessen tension and hostility
between them. However, the arms race accelerated during both the
Kennedy and Johnson years, and the United States and the Soviet Union
continued to vie for friends in the Third World. Young African Americans,
through sit-ins, reinvigorated the civil rights movement. Although African
American civil rights leaders were committed to the philosophy of non-
violence, violence was present as a resistance to Freedom Rides, the
Freedom Summer of 1964, and the Birmingham Children’s Crusade. In the
,face of violent challenges from southern segregationists to an expanding
black civil-rights movement, the Kennedy administration gradually
committed itself to a decisive stand in favor of black equality. Only after the
March on Washington, continuing racial violence, and Kennedy’s
assassination did Congress finally pass civil rights legislation. The section
“Liberalism and the Great Society” covers the legislative accomplishments of
the Johnson administration—the most sweeping reform legislation since
1935. This legislation comprised the Civil Rights Act of 1964, establishment
of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Voting Rights Act of
1965, and legislation associated with Johnson’s War on Poverty. The authors
look closely at the legislation that constituted the War on Poverty and
discuss the problems and successes of this program. The authors then turn
to a discussion of the course of American involvement in Vietnam from
deepening U.S. involvement during the Kennedy administration to the
escalation of and Americanization of the war during the Johnson
administration. This discussion is based on the thesis that disaster befell the
United States in Vietnam because of fear in the Johnson administration that
America’s credibility would suffer in the eyes of friends and foes around the
world if the nation failed to achieve its stated goals in Southeast Asia. As the
three branches of the federal government slowly began to deal with such
longstanding American problems as poverty and minority rights, frustrations
that had built up over generations of inaction manifested themselves.
Events convinced civil-rights activists in the South that the “power
structure” in American society was not to be trusted. Northern blacks began
to reach the same conclusions. Both the civil-rights movement and
Johnson’s antipoverty programs had offered African Americans hope for a
better day in American society. However, as discussion of the social,
economic, and political plight of urban blacks reveals, that hope had not
been fulfilled. Among other factors, unfulfilled expectations and the
continued display of wealth and possessions in the consumer-oriented
American society led to the urban riots of the 1960s. Militant black leaders
gained prominence and questioned Martin Luther King’s philosophy of
nonviolence as well as his goal of integration. Malcolm X, Stokely
, Carmichael, and the Black Panther party called for “black power” within the
context of Black Nationalism. César Chávez and Delores Huerta advocated
for workers’ rights for Mexican Americans. Some whites involved in the civil
rights movement began to become disillusioned with American society.
Although their disillusionment stemmed from different sources than that of
blacks, it led to the political and social activism associated with the New Left
and the counterculture. The authors discuss the emergence, characteristics,
and goals of both of these groups as well as the reaction of the middle class
to their attacks on traditional values. The forces of frustration, rage, and
anger born of racism, sexism, poverty, disillusionment, materialism, and the
revolution of rising expectations practically ripped America apart in the
tumult of 1968. As the Vietnam War escalated and the New Left and the
counterculture found common cause in their antiwar stance, the middle
class became more and more convinced that traditional society was under
siege. The chapter ends with a discussion of the divisive presidential election
of 1968.
SECTION-BY-SECTION IDENTIFICATIONS AND FOCUS QUESTIONS
Introduction
Identify each of the following items. That is, give an explanation or
description of the item. Answer these questions:
Who? What? Where? When?
Then explain the historical significance of each item. That is, establish the
historical context of the item: establish the item as the result of other
factors
existing in the society under study (that is, answer the question, Why?) and
establish the political, social, economic and/or cultural consequences of the
item (that is, answer the question, So What?)
Ezell Blair, Franklin McCain, Joe McNeil, David Richmond, and the
