3.1 Problem 1: Classics in Cross-Cultural Psychology (part 1)
Literature: Heine, Triandis, Ma & Schoeneman, Koskinen
Heine: Cultural Psychology
Cultural psychology psychological processes differ across cultures – these processes arise
from evolutionary-shaped biological potentials adjusting to the culture the person is
developing in. But culture can also emerge from psychology (how people interact).
THEREFORE: culture & mind are mutually constituted
American dominance over psychology – WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich,
Democratic).
The Self-Concept
Independent vs. Interdependent self-concepts
1. Westerners focus more on inner psychological characteristics (e.g. personality,
etc.) = independent self-concept (stable across situations & lifespan, unique)
2. Non-Westerners focus more on relational roles = interdependent self-
concept (behaviour depends on perceptions of others’ thoughts – embedded in
a larger group)
These differences already apparent in children – cultural experiences shape the
self-concept quite early
Self-Consistency vs. Flexibility
People want to maintain a consistent self-concept
- Independent self-concept = uninfluenced by presence of others, so relatively
unchanging & constant throughout situations, aim to maintain this self-concept
- Interdependent self-concept = self-concept is less consistent across contexts. When
independent selves dominate – Kanagawa: Japanese (but not American) self-
descriptions varied depending on who was in the room with them when they did the
questionnaires.
- Problem: if the interdependent self depends on the context, in what context lies the
real interdependent stuff?
- Affectivity: European Americans show less variability in their emotions across
situations compared to Japanese, Hispanic Americans, etc.
- HOWEVER: this doesn’t mean that non-Westerners have unstable self-concepts;
they have a number of stable, context-dependent self-concepts, that are still as stable
across time as Westerners’ self-concepts.
- East-Asians endorse more contradictory self-views than Westerners
- Benefits of self-consistency:
Associated w/well-being among Westerners, this association was weaker with East
Asians
Why?
- Interdependent = weaker tendencies for self-consistency
- Interdependent = alternative perspective: different kinds of consistency needs
E.g. show consistency motivations when others are involved.
, Americans more likely to be consistent w/their own past behaviour, Polish more
likely to be consistent w/behaviour of others – will rationalise decisions they make for
others, don’t rationalise decisions they make for themselves.
SO: interdependent strive for consistency when they consider themselves in relation
to others
Insider vs. Outsider Phenomenological Experiences
Insider = prioritise their own perspective, making sense of the world in terms of how it
unfolds in front of themselves – independent self-concept
Outsider = prioritise the perspective of an audience, attend to the world & themselves in
terms of how they imagine it appears to others –interdependent self-concept
Multicultural selves
1. Multicultural people have multiple self-concepts that are simultaneously accessible
2. Multicultural people activate their different self-concepts depending on the
situation/primes: frame-switching – e.g. being primed with American vs. Chinese
icons changes the attributions for the behaviours of fish
- People are more likely to frame-switch if they see their dual cultural identities as
integrated rather than in opposition, and if they were second-generation rather than
first-generation immigrants
- Frame-switching shows that people can have multiple knowledge structures – when
one part of the network is activated (seeing American icons), can lead to activation of
another network (seeing Chinese icons)
- Monocultural people should also be able to frame-switch when different knowledge
networks are activated, but multi-culturals show more extreme degrees of frame-
switching. SO: knowledge networks of multiculturals when it comes to ideas of
independence & interdependence are more clearly separated than with monoculturals
- Multi-cultural people also more creative; adapting to diff environments means
adopting a flexible style to approach problems enhanced creativity
Motivation
Self-Enhancement & Self-Esteem motivations
- Independent: want to view themselves positively: majority have higher self-esteems,
sometimes unrealistically positive views of themselves, engage in compensatory self-
protective responses if something threatens their self-esteem
- Interdependent: self-enhancement motivations less prominent, more attentive to
negative info about themselves that allows for self-improvement
Why?
- Interdependent more motivated to enhance group selves rather than individual selves
(however, no studies to prove this)
- Interdependent will self-enhance in domains that are important to them: Better-than-
Average Effect paradigm East Asians more self-critical for important traits than for
less important ones
Literature: Heine, Triandis, Ma & Schoeneman, Koskinen
Heine: Cultural Psychology
Cultural psychology psychological processes differ across cultures – these processes arise
from evolutionary-shaped biological potentials adjusting to the culture the person is
developing in. But culture can also emerge from psychology (how people interact).
THEREFORE: culture & mind are mutually constituted
American dominance over psychology – WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich,
Democratic).
The Self-Concept
Independent vs. Interdependent self-concepts
1. Westerners focus more on inner psychological characteristics (e.g. personality,
etc.) = independent self-concept (stable across situations & lifespan, unique)
2. Non-Westerners focus more on relational roles = interdependent self-
concept (behaviour depends on perceptions of others’ thoughts – embedded in
a larger group)
These differences already apparent in children – cultural experiences shape the
self-concept quite early
Self-Consistency vs. Flexibility
People want to maintain a consistent self-concept
- Independent self-concept = uninfluenced by presence of others, so relatively
unchanging & constant throughout situations, aim to maintain this self-concept
- Interdependent self-concept = self-concept is less consistent across contexts. When
independent selves dominate – Kanagawa: Japanese (but not American) self-
descriptions varied depending on who was in the room with them when they did the
questionnaires.
- Problem: if the interdependent self depends on the context, in what context lies the
real interdependent stuff?
- Affectivity: European Americans show less variability in their emotions across
situations compared to Japanese, Hispanic Americans, etc.
- HOWEVER: this doesn’t mean that non-Westerners have unstable self-concepts;
they have a number of stable, context-dependent self-concepts, that are still as stable
across time as Westerners’ self-concepts.
- East-Asians endorse more contradictory self-views than Westerners
- Benefits of self-consistency:
Associated w/well-being among Westerners, this association was weaker with East
Asians
Why?
- Interdependent = weaker tendencies for self-consistency
- Interdependent = alternative perspective: different kinds of consistency needs
E.g. show consistency motivations when others are involved.
, Americans more likely to be consistent w/their own past behaviour, Polish more
likely to be consistent w/behaviour of others – will rationalise decisions they make for
others, don’t rationalise decisions they make for themselves.
SO: interdependent strive for consistency when they consider themselves in relation
to others
Insider vs. Outsider Phenomenological Experiences
Insider = prioritise their own perspective, making sense of the world in terms of how it
unfolds in front of themselves – independent self-concept
Outsider = prioritise the perspective of an audience, attend to the world & themselves in
terms of how they imagine it appears to others –interdependent self-concept
Multicultural selves
1. Multicultural people have multiple self-concepts that are simultaneously accessible
2. Multicultural people activate their different self-concepts depending on the
situation/primes: frame-switching – e.g. being primed with American vs. Chinese
icons changes the attributions for the behaviours of fish
- People are more likely to frame-switch if they see their dual cultural identities as
integrated rather than in opposition, and if they were second-generation rather than
first-generation immigrants
- Frame-switching shows that people can have multiple knowledge structures – when
one part of the network is activated (seeing American icons), can lead to activation of
another network (seeing Chinese icons)
- Monocultural people should also be able to frame-switch when different knowledge
networks are activated, but multi-culturals show more extreme degrees of frame-
switching. SO: knowledge networks of multiculturals when it comes to ideas of
independence & interdependence are more clearly separated than with monoculturals
- Multi-cultural people also more creative; adapting to diff environments means
adopting a flexible style to approach problems enhanced creativity
Motivation
Self-Enhancement & Self-Esteem motivations
- Independent: want to view themselves positively: majority have higher self-esteems,
sometimes unrealistically positive views of themselves, engage in compensatory self-
protective responses if something threatens their self-esteem
- Interdependent: self-enhancement motivations less prominent, more attentive to
negative info about themselves that allows for self-improvement
Why?
- Interdependent more motivated to enhance group selves rather than individual selves
(however, no studies to prove this)
- Interdependent will self-enhance in domains that are important to them: Better-than-
Average Effect paradigm East Asians more self-critical for important traits than for
less important ones
