GEOGRAPHY MOCK EXAMS JAN 2025
Physical
KEY : RED = SUBTITLE 1) 2) 3) ETC = TOPIC TITLE
Table of Contents
WATER AND CARBON CYCLES AS NATURAL SYSTEMS .......................................... 2
THE WATER CYCLE: ............................................................................................. 4
The carbon cycle ............................................................................................... 11
Water, carbon, climate and life .......................................................................... 20
Water And Carbon Cycle Case Studies: Amazon And River Exe ................................... 25
River Exe Catchment Case Study .............................................................................................. 25
AMAZON RAINFOREST CASE STUDY ......................................................................................... 27
COASTAL SYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES: ............................................................. 31
Systems And Processes ........................................................................................... 34
Sediment sources, cells and budgets........................................................................ 35
Geomorphological processes: .................................................................................. 37
Coastal Landforms and Landscapes of Deposition..................................................... 42
Sea Level Change .................................................................................................... 47
Costal management ................................................................................................ 50
Case Studies: .......................................................................................................... 54
Portugal west coast .................................................................................................................. 54
Coast case study 2: Chesapeake bay USA ................................................................................. 54
Case study 3: Jurassic coast (old harry) ..................................................................................... 55
Case study 4: coastal management - Holderness coast: ............................................................ 55
Case study 5 – the risk and opportunities for human occupation – Kiribati ................................... 58
Case study 5 – the risk and opportunities for human occupation – Odisha ................................... 59
3.1.5.1 HAZARDS: .............................................................................................. 61
Hazard models: ....................................................................................................... 62
Plate tectonics.................................................................................................. 64
volcanic hazards ..................................................................................................... 70
1995 Montserrat ....................................................................................................................... 74
Seismic hazards ...................................................................................................... 75
Haiti 2010 : a Multi-hazard event. .............................................................................................. 78
Japan 2011 Tohoku earthquake + tsunami ................................................................................. 79
storm hazards ......................................................................................................... 80
Typhoon Haiyan 2013: .............................................................................................................. 83
Hurricane Sandy 2012 (focus on Haiti to show multi hazardous area) .......................................... 83
, Wildfires ................................................................................................................. 84
Alberta wildfires 2016: .............................................................................................................. 86
WATER AND CARBON CYCLES AS NATURAL
SYSTEMS
What is a system?
A group of interacting parts connected by flows or transfers of energy, material, or matter. There are
open, closed and isolated systems
Types of system:
- Open Systems – these are any system which has external inputs and external outputs of both
energy AND matter. E.g. a drainage basin
- Closed systems - these have transfers of energy both into and beyond the system boundary but
NOT transfer of matter. Planet Earth is generally considered a closed system, with energy coming
from the sun, balanced by radiant energy lost from the Earth.
Water Cycle
• Outputs: streamflow ( eg tributaries that leave the drainage basin) and evapotranspiration.
• Inputs: precipitation (convectional, frontal and relief rainfall)
• Stores:
o Soil water – water stored in the soil which is utilised by plants
o Groundwater – water stored in the pore spaces of rock
o River channel – water stored in a river (short term)
o Interception – water intercepted by plants
o Surface storage (puddles , ponds, lakes)
o Water table – upper level at which pore spaces and fractures become saturated
• Flows:
o infiltration (movement of water from above ground into soil)
o percolation ( water moves from the ground or soil into porous rock or rock fractures.
Dependant on how many fractures are in the rock, or the permeability
o throughflow (water moves from the soil and into streams + rivers. The speed of flow
depends on the type of soil. Clay soils with smaller pore spaces have slower flow rate.
, Sandy soils drain quickly because hey have a lower field capacity, larger pore spaces
and natural channels from animals such as worms.)
o surface runoff -overland flow-: (water flows above the ground as sheetflow, or in rills =
small channels like streams)
o groundwater flow: water moves through the rocks
o streamflow (water that moves through established channels eg rivers
o stemflow (flow of water that has been intercepted by plants or trees, down a stem, lead,
branch or other plant part.)
Feedback cycles:
Positive feedback – enhancing change
1. Ice-Albedo Feedback
o Higher global temperatures → More ice melts → Less sunlight reflected (lower albedo) →
More heat absorbed → More ice melts (cycle continues).
2. Deforestation & Reduced Evapotranspiration
o Deforestation → Less transpiration → Reduced cloud formation → Less rainfall → Drier
conditions → Further loss of vegetation → More desertification.
3. Permafrost Thawing & Methane Release
o Rising temperatures → Permafrost melts → Methane (a greenhouse gas) is released →
More warming → More permafrost melts.
Negative Feedback (Restoring Equilibrium)
1. Increased Evaporation & Cloud Cover
o Higher temperatures → More evaporation → More cloud formation → More reflection of
solar radiation (increased albedo) → Lower temperatures → Reduced evaporation.
2. Flooding & River Discharge Regulation
o Heavy rainfall → Increased river discharge → Greater sediment deposition in floodplains →
Raised land levels → Reduced future flood risks.
3. Drought & Vegetation Response
o Drought → Plants reduce transpiration (close stomata) → Less water loss → Soil moisture
retained → Mitigates drought impact.
Dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium in the water cycle refers to the natural balance between inputs (e.g.,
precipitation) and outputs (e.g., evaporation, runoff) within a system. While short-term changes (e.g.,
heavy rainfall or drought) can disrupt this balance, the system self-regulates over time through feedback
mechanisms to restore equilibrium. However, human activities (e.g., deforestation, climate change) can
push the system beyond its natural limits, leading to long-term changes.
Carbon Cycle
, • Outputs: Photosynthesis (plants using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into glucose) and
respiration (animals and plants releasing carbon dioxide when they breathe)
• Stores: Atmosphere, hydrosphere (carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater), biosphere (plants and
animals storing carbon in their tissues), lithosphere (carbon stored in rocks and soil)
• Flows: Decomposition, volcanic eruptions, respiration, photosynthesis, burning of fossil
fuels, sedimentation, upwelling, carbon sequestration
• Feedback Mechanisms: Positive (increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps more heat
from the sun, leading to global warming) and negative (increased acidity of the oceans, making it
difficult for some organisms to survive)
• Dynamic Equilibrium: The amount of carbon in the Earth's system is relatively constant over
time, even though it is constantly being recycled.
Both cycles are interconnected:
• The water cycle provides a source of carbon for plants, which then release it back into the
atmosphere through respiration.
• The carbon cycle helps to regulate the Earth's climate, as carbon dioxide traps heat from the
sun.
Human activities can disrupt these cycles:
• Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, disrupting the carbon cycle
and contributing to climate change.
• Deforestation reduces the amount of carbon stored in trees, disrupting the carbon cycle and
contributing to climate change.
THE WATER CYCLE:
Store Percentage of Earth's Water
Atmosphere 0.001%
Hydrosphere 97.5%
Lithosphere 0.2%
Cryosphere 2.3%
Processes driving change in the magnitude of the major stores of water:
Physical
KEY : RED = SUBTITLE 1) 2) 3) ETC = TOPIC TITLE
Table of Contents
WATER AND CARBON CYCLES AS NATURAL SYSTEMS .......................................... 2
THE WATER CYCLE: ............................................................................................. 4
The carbon cycle ............................................................................................... 11
Water, carbon, climate and life .......................................................................... 20
Water And Carbon Cycle Case Studies: Amazon And River Exe ................................... 25
River Exe Catchment Case Study .............................................................................................. 25
AMAZON RAINFOREST CASE STUDY ......................................................................................... 27
COASTAL SYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES: ............................................................. 31
Systems And Processes ........................................................................................... 34
Sediment sources, cells and budgets........................................................................ 35
Geomorphological processes: .................................................................................. 37
Coastal Landforms and Landscapes of Deposition..................................................... 42
Sea Level Change .................................................................................................... 47
Costal management ................................................................................................ 50
Case Studies: .......................................................................................................... 54
Portugal west coast .................................................................................................................. 54
Coast case study 2: Chesapeake bay USA ................................................................................. 54
Case study 3: Jurassic coast (old harry) ..................................................................................... 55
Case study 4: coastal management - Holderness coast: ............................................................ 55
Case study 5 – the risk and opportunities for human occupation – Kiribati ................................... 58
Case study 5 – the risk and opportunities for human occupation – Odisha ................................... 59
3.1.5.1 HAZARDS: .............................................................................................. 61
Hazard models: ....................................................................................................... 62
Plate tectonics.................................................................................................. 64
volcanic hazards ..................................................................................................... 70
1995 Montserrat ....................................................................................................................... 74
Seismic hazards ...................................................................................................... 75
Haiti 2010 : a Multi-hazard event. .............................................................................................. 78
Japan 2011 Tohoku earthquake + tsunami ................................................................................. 79
storm hazards ......................................................................................................... 80
Typhoon Haiyan 2013: .............................................................................................................. 83
Hurricane Sandy 2012 (focus on Haiti to show multi hazardous area) .......................................... 83
, Wildfires ................................................................................................................. 84
Alberta wildfires 2016: .............................................................................................................. 86
WATER AND CARBON CYCLES AS NATURAL
SYSTEMS
What is a system?
A group of interacting parts connected by flows or transfers of energy, material, or matter. There are
open, closed and isolated systems
Types of system:
- Open Systems – these are any system which has external inputs and external outputs of both
energy AND matter. E.g. a drainage basin
- Closed systems - these have transfers of energy both into and beyond the system boundary but
NOT transfer of matter. Planet Earth is generally considered a closed system, with energy coming
from the sun, balanced by radiant energy lost from the Earth.
Water Cycle
• Outputs: streamflow ( eg tributaries that leave the drainage basin) and evapotranspiration.
• Inputs: precipitation (convectional, frontal and relief rainfall)
• Stores:
o Soil water – water stored in the soil which is utilised by plants
o Groundwater – water stored in the pore spaces of rock
o River channel – water stored in a river (short term)
o Interception – water intercepted by plants
o Surface storage (puddles , ponds, lakes)
o Water table – upper level at which pore spaces and fractures become saturated
• Flows:
o infiltration (movement of water from above ground into soil)
o percolation ( water moves from the ground or soil into porous rock or rock fractures.
Dependant on how many fractures are in the rock, or the permeability
o throughflow (water moves from the soil and into streams + rivers. The speed of flow
depends on the type of soil. Clay soils with smaller pore spaces have slower flow rate.
, Sandy soils drain quickly because hey have a lower field capacity, larger pore spaces
and natural channels from animals such as worms.)
o surface runoff -overland flow-: (water flows above the ground as sheetflow, or in rills =
small channels like streams)
o groundwater flow: water moves through the rocks
o streamflow (water that moves through established channels eg rivers
o stemflow (flow of water that has been intercepted by plants or trees, down a stem, lead,
branch or other plant part.)
Feedback cycles:
Positive feedback – enhancing change
1. Ice-Albedo Feedback
o Higher global temperatures → More ice melts → Less sunlight reflected (lower albedo) →
More heat absorbed → More ice melts (cycle continues).
2. Deforestation & Reduced Evapotranspiration
o Deforestation → Less transpiration → Reduced cloud formation → Less rainfall → Drier
conditions → Further loss of vegetation → More desertification.
3. Permafrost Thawing & Methane Release
o Rising temperatures → Permafrost melts → Methane (a greenhouse gas) is released →
More warming → More permafrost melts.
Negative Feedback (Restoring Equilibrium)
1. Increased Evaporation & Cloud Cover
o Higher temperatures → More evaporation → More cloud formation → More reflection of
solar radiation (increased albedo) → Lower temperatures → Reduced evaporation.
2. Flooding & River Discharge Regulation
o Heavy rainfall → Increased river discharge → Greater sediment deposition in floodplains →
Raised land levels → Reduced future flood risks.
3. Drought & Vegetation Response
o Drought → Plants reduce transpiration (close stomata) → Less water loss → Soil moisture
retained → Mitigates drought impact.
Dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium in the water cycle refers to the natural balance between inputs (e.g.,
precipitation) and outputs (e.g., evaporation, runoff) within a system. While short-term changes (e.g.,
heavy rainfall or drought) can disrupt this balance, the system self-regulates over time through feedback
mechanisms to restore equilibrium. However, human activities (e.g., deforestation, climate change) can
push the system beyond its natural limits, leading to long-term changes.
Carbon Cycle
, • Outputs: Photosynthesis (plants using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into glucose) and
respiration (animals and plants releasing carbon dioxide when they breathe)
• Stores: Atmosphere, hydrosphere (carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater), biosphere (plants and
animals storing carbon in their tissues), lithosphere (carbon stored in rocks and soil)
• Flows: Decomposition, volcanic eruptions, respiration, photosynthesis, burning of fossil
fuels, sedimentation, upwelling, carbon sequestration
• Feedback Mechanisms: Positive (increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps more heat
from the sun, leading to global warming) and negative (increased acidity of the oceans, making it
difficult for some organisms to survive)
• Dynamic Equilibrium: The amount of carbon in the Earth's system is relatively constant over
time, even though it is constantly being recycled.
Both cycles are interconnected:
• The water cycle provides a source of carbon for plants, which then release it back into the
atmosphere through respiration.
• The carbon cycle helps to regulate the Earth's climate, as carbon dioxide traps heat from the
sun.
Human activities can disrupt these cycles:
• Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, disrupting the carbon cycle
and contributing to climate change.
• Deforestation reduces the amount of carbon stored in trees, disrupting the carbon cycle and
contributing to climate change.
THE WATER CYCLE:
Store Percentage of Earth's Water
Atmosphere 0.001%
Hydrosphere 97.5%
Lithosphere 0.2%
Cryosphere 2.3%
Processes driving change in the magnitude of the major stores of water:
