Theory & methods (yr 2)
Functionalism: (macro structuralist consensus) society is a system of interdependent institutions maintaining social order and
stability.
Marxism: (macro structuralist conflict) argues we live in a capitalist society that is based on inequalities between bourgeoisie and
proletariat. Believes capitalism will be overthrown by a revolution (when proletariat become aware of false class consciousness)
Neo-marxism: e.g Gramsci draws on Marx’s ideas by emphasising the cultural aspects of class conflict rather than the economic
focus of Marx's original writings.
Feminism: (macro structuralist conflict) argues that we live in a patriarchal world and that gender inequality is the main cause of
issues.
Postmodernism: rejects traditional notions of truth, argues that society has moved beyond modernity into a fragmented era
characterised by diverse identities.
Interactionism: (micro-level) argues for meaning to be produced from examining interactions between individuals
Vocab:
Anomalies: something that deviates from what is standard/normal
Pre paradigmatic: no shared paradigm yet
Inductive: Looking at specific examples and making a general rule.
Deductive: Starting with a general rule and applying it to specific cases.
Metanarratives: Big, overarching stories or explanations about the world.
Casual laws: General rules that describe cause-and-effect relationships.
Inductive logic: A method of reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations.
Verificationism: The idea that a statement is meaningful only if it can be empirically verified.
Top down approach examines society through large-scale structures to explain individual behavior.
Bottom-up approach analyzes individual interactions to reveal broader social patterns.
False class consciousness: w/c accept exploitation and inequality.
Essentialism: sharing same beliefs about group of ppl e.g women.
Discourses: (ways of seeing, speaking and thinking) are what cause oppression.
Indexicality- nothing has fixed meaning , potential to be unclear, dependent on social context.
Reflexivity: inherent meanings/ common sense that brings about consensus.
Globalisation: increasing interconnectedness of societies
Positivism: quantitative objective
● Only recognise data that is scientifically verified or can be logical proven.
● Favour macro/structural theories
● Social reality observed through empirical evidence
● Researcher should be detached
Interpretivism: qualitative subjective-
● Favour micro/ interactionist/social action approach
● Empirical evidence cannot solely explain social reality because it is subjective
● Individuals have free will
Suicide studies:
Positivism- Durkheim - Tried to prove if suicide had social causes it would establish sociology as a science. Found
that rates for protestants were higher than catholics (official stats). Durkehim: these ‘social facts’ (levels of
integration and regulation) proved his theory. E.g Catholicism was more successful at integrating individuals hence
why less likely to commit suicide.
-C Gibbs and Martin argued that Durkheim’s methods weren’t a vigorous enough use of scientific methods,
arguing that he didn’t operationalise his concept of integration, making it impossible to measure.
- Durkheim reduces complex individual behavior to simple social causes, which critics argue is unscientific because it
overlooks subjective experiences and psychological factors.
- Popper criticized Durkheim’s theory for being difficult to falsify, as it uses vague concepts like “integration” and
“regulation,” which can be retroactively fitted to data.
, Intrepretivists - Douglas - rejects positivist idea - external social factors determining behaviour : we have free will.
To understand suicide must understand meaning. Rejects durkheim methods- say its not objective facts but a
social construction on how coroner's label deaths. Say to use qualitative data to reveal actors meaning.
-The Social Meaning of Suicide (1967), challenges Durkheim’s positivist approach and that suicide statistics are
socially constructed rather than objective facts.
- Douglas focuses on micro-level interpretations but largely ignores structural factors such as economic conditions,
social integration that contribute to suicide trends.
-doesnt mean suicide statistics are entirely unreliable or meaningless. Are clear patterns in suicide rates that suggest
underlying social causes.
Evaluation of methods:
Positivism:
(ADVANTAGES): Reliability
● E.g ( structured interviews, experiments, and official statistics) are highly standardized.
● The control over variables means that the research can be replicated, leading to consistent results over
time.
Objectivity & Value-Free Research
● Positivists aim to keep personal biases out of the research.
● Control over the environment reduces the influence of extraneous variables (, ensuring that findings are
based on observable, measurable data.
Cause-and-Effect Relationships
● Controlling variables (especially in experiments) allows sociologists to see what directly influences
human behavior.
● E.g in education studies, researchers can control for factors like class size or teaching style to assess their
impact on achievement.
Generalizability
● Large-scale studies using structured surveys or official statistics ensure a representative sample,
meaning results can apply to a broader population.
Quantitative Data for Comparisons
● Numerical data = comparisons can be made between different groups, time periods, or locations.
● E.g crime rates before and after a policy change can be measured statistically.
(DISADVANTAGES):
Ignores subjective experiences
● Interpretivists argue that people's thoughts, feelings, and motives cannot always be captured in a
controlled study.
Deterministic
● Assumes human behavior is shaped by external forces, ignoring free will.
Lacks validity
● quantitative/objective data focuses on numbers rather than personal experiences.
Interpretivism:
(ADVANTAGES):
In-depth understanding + gain rapport
● Unlike positivist approaches, interpretivism allows sociologists to see the world through people's eyes
(verstehen).
Functionalism: (macro structuralist consensus) society is a system of interdependent institutions maintaining social order and
stability.
Marxism: (macro structuralist conflict) argues we live in a capitalist society that is based on inequalities between bourgeoisie and
proletariat. Believes capitalism will be overthrown by a revolution (when proletariat become aware of false class consciousness)
Neo-marxism: e.g Gramsci draws on Marx’s ideas by emphasising the cultural aspects of class conflict rather than the economic
focus of Marx's original writings.
Feminism: (macro structuralist conflict) argues that we live in a patriarchal world and that gender inequality is the main cause of
issues.
Postmodernism: rejects traditional notions of truth, argues that society has moved beyond modernity into a fragmented era
characterised by diverse identities.
Interactionism: (micro-level) argues for meaning to be produced from examining interactions between individuals
Vocab:
Anomalies: something that deviates from what is standard/normal
Pre paradigmatic: no shared paradigm yet
Inductive: Looking at specific examples and making a general rule.
Deductive: Starting with a general rule and applying it to specific cases.
Metanarratives: Big, overarching stories or explanations about the world.
Casual laws: General rules that describe cause-and-effect relationships.
Inductive logic: A method of reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations.
Verificationism: The idea that a statement is meaningful only if it can be empirically verified.
Top down approach examines society through large-scale structures to explain individual behavior.
Bottom-up approach analyzes individual interactions to reveal broader social patterns.
False class consciousness: w/c accept exploitation and inequality.
Essentialism: sharing same beliefs about group of ppl e.g women.
Discourses: (ways of seeing, speaking and thinking) are what cause oppression.
Indexicality- nothing has fixed meaning , potential to be unclear, dependent on social context.
Reflexivity: inherent meanings/ common sense that brings about consensus.
Globalisation: increasing interconnectedness of societies
Positivism: quantitative objective
● Only recognise data that is scientifically verified or can be logical proven.
● Favour macro/structural theories
● Social reality observed through empirical evidence
● Researcher should be detached
Interpretivism: qualitative subjective-
● Favour micro/ interactionist/social action approach
● Empirical evidence cannot solely explain social reality because it is subjective
● Individuals have free will
Suicide studies:
Positivism- Durkheim - Tried to prove if suicide had social causes it would establish sociology as a science. Found
that rates for protestants were higher than catholics (official stats). Durkehim: these ‘social facts’ (levels of
integration and regulation) proved his theory. E.g Catholicism was more successful at integrating individuals hence
why less likely to commit suicide.
-C Gibbs and Martin argued that Durkheim’s methods weren’t a vigorous enough use of scientific methods,
arguing that he didn’t operationalise his concept of integration, making it impossible to measure.
- Durkheim reduces complex individual behavior to simple social causes, which critics argue is unscientific because it
overlooks subjective experiences and psychological factors.
- Popper criticized Durkheim’s theory for being difficult to falsify, as it uses vague concepts like “integration” and
“regulation,” which can be retroactively fitted to data.
, Intrepretivists - Douglas - rejects positivist idea - external social factors determining behaviour : we have free will.
To understand suicide must understand meaning. Rejects durkheim methods- say its not objective facts but a
social construction on how coroner's label deaths. Say to use qualitative data to reveal actors meaning.
-The Social Meaning of Suicide (1967), challenges Durkheim’s positivist approach and that suicide statistics are
socially constructed rather than objective facts.
- Douglas focuses on micro-level interpretations but largely ignores structural factors such as economic conditions,
social integration that contribute to suicide trends.
-doesnt mean suicide statistics are entirely unreliable or meaningless. Are clear patterns in suicide rates that suggest
underlying social causes.
Evaluation of methods:
Positivism:
(ADVANTAGES): Reliability
● E.g ( structured interviews, experiments, and official statistics) are highly standardized.
● The control over variables means that the research can be replicated, leading to consistent results over
time.
Objectivity & Value-Free Research
● Positivists aim to keep personal biases out of the research.
● Control over the environment reduces the influence of extraneous variables (, ensuring that findings are
based on observable, measurable data.
Cause-and-Effect Relationships
● Controlling variables (especially in experiments) allows sociologists to see what directly influences
human behavior.
● E.g in education studies, researchers can control for factors like class size or teaching style to assess their
impact on achievement.
Generalizability
● Large-scale studies using structured surveys or official statistics ensure a representative sample,
meaning results can apply to a broader population.
Quantitative Data for Comparisons
● Numerical data = comparisons can be made between different groups, time periods, or locations.
● E.g crime rates before and after a policy change can be measured statistically.
(DISADVANTAGES):
Ignores subjective experiences
● Interpretivists argue that people's thoughts, feelings, and motives cannot always be captured in a
controlled study.
Deterministic
● Assumes human behavior is shaped by external forces, ignoring free will.
Lacks validity
● quantitative/objective data focuses on numbers rather than personal experiences.
Interpretivism:
(ADVANTAGES):
In-depth understanding + gain rapport
● Unlike positivist approaches, interpretivism allows sociologists to see the world through people's eyes
(verstehen).
