NEW 2025 NURS 611 MVU WITH Q&A 100% GUARANTEED

NEW 2025 NURS 611 MVU WITH Q&A 100% GUARANTEED Apoptosis A programmed cell death that is regulated or programmed. Cellular self-destruction for elimination or unwanted cell populations Necrosis Rapid loss of the plasma membrane structure, organelle swelling, mitochondria dysfunction What is the #1 cause of cellular injury leading to necrosis (especially the kidney and heart) hypoxia What is the #1 cause of hypoxia? ischemia Main component of a cell nucleus What does the nucleus contain? nucleolus What is the nucleolus composed of? RNA, most of cellular DNA, DNA binding proteins, and histones Why are histone important? histones bind to DNA and fold it into chromosomes (chromatin) which is essential for cell division What are ribosomes? RNA-protein complexes (nucleoproteins) that are synthesized in the nucleolus and secreted into the cytoplasm through pores in the nuclear envelope called nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) Where can ribosomes be found? cytoplasm and rough ER what are ribosomes chief function? provides sits for cellular protein synthesis What is the Golgi apparatus (complex)? a network of flatten, smooth membranes and vesicles frequently located near the nucleus of the cell What does the Golgi apparatus do? takes proteins from the ER and processes/packages them into small membrane-bound vesicles called "secretory vesicles, and refines and directs traffic in the cell What are lysosomes and what do they do? maintain cellular health by removal of toxic cellular components, removal of useless organelles, termination of signal transduction, and signals cellular adaption How does aging affect lysosomes? leads to progressive loss of lysosomal efficiency which declines the regenerative capacity of organs and tissue What functions do lysosomal components integrate? nutrient abundance, energy levels, and cell stressors and will translate them into instructions that regulate cellular metabolism toward either proliferation or inactivity What is mitochondria responsible for? cellular respiration, cellular metabolism , and energy production What does the inner membrane of mitochondria contain? enzymes of the respiratory chain and are essential to the process of oxidative phosphorylation that generates most of the cell's ATP The mitochondrial matrix contains what kind of pathways (1), involve what two things (2), and metabolizes what three things (3)? 1- metabolic 2- urea and heme synthesis 3- carbs, proteins, and lipids What can accumulate intracellularly caused by stresses form metabolic dearangements? carbs, proteins, and lipids What is physiologic atrophy? occurs in early development. ex: thymus glad during childhood What is pathologic atrophy? occurs as a result of decreases in workload, use, pressure, blood supply, nutrition, and hormonal stimulation. Ex: Shrinking of gonads in an adolescent pt in response to decreased hormonal stimulation. and an pt immobilized in bed for a prolonged time what is hypertrophy? increase in cell size Example of beneficial physiologic hypertrophy? hypertrophy of myocardial cells from endurance training example of pathologic hypertrophy cardiomegaly in a hypertensive patient What is hyperplasia? increase in the number of cells example of compensatory hyperplasia? regeneration of the liver example of pathological hyperplasia endometrial tissue example of hormonal hyperplasia enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy What is metaplasia? replacement of the cells example of metaplasia normal columnar ciliated epithelial cells of the bronchial lining being replaced by squamous cells. can be reversed if irritant stopped cellular metabolism- what molecule gives us energy? ATP functions as the energy-transferring molecule During ischemia, what effect does the loss of ATP have on the cells? a reduction of ATP levels (ATP needs oxygen) that causes the Na+/K+ pump and Na+/Ca exchange to fail, leading to intracellular accumulation of Sodium and calcium and diffusion of K+ out of the cell . Sodium and water can enter cell freely causing cellular swelling What is a free radical? A molecule that is unstable and highly reactive because it contains unpaired electrons. To stabilize, it gives up or takes a electron making it capable of injurious chemical bond formations with proteins, lipids, or carbs what plays a major role in the initiation and progression of disease? free radicals what are the 5 major diseases that are affected by reactive oxygen species and are known to play a role in initiation and progression? hyperlipidemia, diabetes m., hypertension, CHF, and ischemic heart disease What is wrong with an unpair electron? causes a chemical imbalance of the cell membrane, making the molecule unstable What is a consequence of leakage of lysosomes during chemical injury? enzymatic digestion of cellular organelles, including the nucleus and nucleolus, ensues, halting synthesis of DNA and RNA What happens when liver enzymes metabolize ethanol into acetaldehyde? hepatic cellular dysfunction. Peroxisomes help detoxify the liver-if not functioning properly the ethanol is turned into fat in the liver, "fatty liver" What is ionizing radiation (IR)? any form of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms. What does ionizing radiation result in? the production of negatively charge free elections and positively charged ionized atoms What is ionizing radiation emitted from? x-rays, y-rays, alpha and beta particles, subatomic particles such as neutrons, deuterons, protons, and pions WEAR A LEAD APRON What is the main mechanism of damage to DNA by the ionizing radiation? from generation of reactive oxygen species from reactions with free radicals by radiolysis of water IT HURTS THE DNA THE MOST What happens with physiologic processes with aging? every physiologic process can be shown to function less effeciently What is sarcopenia? muscular atrophy: degenerative skeletal muscle loss how fast it happens depends on nature/nurture What happens when "stiffness" or "rigidity" of systems occur with aging? 1-peripheral vascular resistance increases (HTN) 2- decreased production of hydrochloric acid (HCL) and delayed stomach emptying (decrease in appetite) 3- decreased immune response to T-dependent antigens What happens with fluid and electrolytes with aging? 1- total body potassium concentration decreases because of decreased cellular mass 2- the decreased cellular mass is accompanied by an increased extracellular compartment leading to an increased sodium/potassium ratio What is an aneuploid cell? those that do not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes What makes a trisomic cell? an aneuploid cell containing three copies of one chromosome (Trisomy 21, 18) What is a well known example of aneuploidy? trisomy 21 (down syndrome) What is trisomy 21 or down syndrome known for? IQ between 25-70 low nasal bridge protruding tongue flat, low set ears What is the definition of penetrance? The percentage of individuals with a specific genotype who also express the expected phenotype What is Imcomplete Penetrance? individuals who have a disease-causing allele may not exhibit that expected phenotype at all, even though the allele and the associated disease may be transmitted to the next generation What is Huntington's disease and what are the main features? 1-A well-known autosomal dominant condition 2- progressive dementia and increasingly uncontrollable movements of the limb