PSIO 305 FINAL PAPER 2025/2026 QUESTIONS WITH
ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Spinal cord - ✔✔-Cervical 8
-Thoracic 12
-Lumbar 5
-Sacral 5
-Coccygeal 1
-Each have a somatic sensory, motor, visceral sensory and autonomic nerve fibers
✔✔What are important segments associated with spinal nerves? - ✔✔- Dorsal root -
Neurons carry sensory information
- Dorsal root ganglia - where cell bodies of somatic and viseral neurons are located.
- Ventral roots - carry information from CNS to muscles and glands.
- Autonomic gaglia - contain cell bodies of post-ganglionic antonomic neurons.
✔✔What are the two types of Nerve tissue? - ✔✔- Gray matter - Unmyelinated nerve
cell bodies, Clusters of cell bodies in CNS are nuclei, Dendrites, Axon terminals
- White matter - Myelinated axons, axon bundles conecting CNS regions are tracts,
contain very few cell bodies
✔✔Spinal Cord Gray Matter Divisions - ✔✔- Dorsal Horn - Where Afferent somatic
neurons and Afferent visceral neurons connect with interneurons
- Ventral horns - contains cell bodies of motor neurons
-Lateral horns - contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Brain stem - ✔✔-Oldest region of the brain
-connects the forebrain and cerebellum to spinal cord
- Midbrain: connects to forebrain
- Pons: Connects to cerebellum
- Medulla oblongata: connects to spinal cords
-Many brainsten nuclei are associated with reticular formation
- Controls wakefulness, sleep, muscle tone, pain modulation
✔✔Reticular formation - ✔✔-loosey defined network of highly interconnected nuclei in
the brainstem
-three sections
-Comprised of multiple neuromodulatory systems
✔✔Neurons in the neuromodulatory systems - ✔✔project axons to large areas of the
brain
- Release neuromodulators ( DA, NE, E, 5-HT, Ach)
✔✔What are Neuromodulators? - ✔✔are a special type of neurotransmitter that are not
removed from the synaptic cleft quickly can diffuse a long distance
,✔✔Dienecephalon - ✔✔(between brain)
-Thalamus: relay information to cortect
-Hypothalamus: Control of homeostasis
-pituitary gland
-pineal gland
✔✔Cerebrum - ✔✔-Cerebral cortex
-Basal ganglia: control of movement
-Limbic system: link between cognitive function and emotions
- Amygdala and cingulate cortex: emotion and memory
- Hippocampus: learning and memory
✔✔Cerebral cortex - ✔✔-Sensory areas: sesnory input translated intp perception
(awareness)
-Motor areas: direct skeletal muscle movement
-Association areas - intergate information from sensory motor areas
✔✔Limbic system - ✔✔Link between cognitive function and emotions
✔✔Glail Cells (Non-Neuronal Structures) - ✔✔Astrocytes: numerous functions
Ependymal cells: line cavities
Microglia: Phagocyte
Oligodendrocytes: form myelin
Schwann cells ( located in PNS): form myelin
✔✔Astrocytes - ✔✔development of connection between nervous and non-nervous
tissue
-communicate through chemical messengers
-remove neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft
-protect neurons against toxic substances
-glycogen synthesis
-Blood-Brain barrier
✔✔Microglia - ✔✔Helps protect neurons with astrocytes
-Phagocytosis ( clearing out bacterial or dead/injured cells)
-secrete cytokines to modulate brain functions
-Protect the CNS from oxidative stress
✔✔Which of the following endocrine dysregulation contributes to PSTD?
a. An abnormally low level of NE
b. An abnormally log level of E
c. An abnormally low level of cortisol
d. An abnormally low level of CRH - ✔✔c. An abnormally low level of cortisol
, ✔✔Stress can improve or impair learning memory depending on the nature ofthe stress.
a. True
b. False - ✔✔True
✔✔Sensory information from your internal organ is sent to the brain through
thefollowing nerve.
a. General somatic motor nerve
b. General visceral sensory nerve
c. Special visceral sensory nerve
d. Autonomic nerve - ✔✔b. General visceral sensory nerve
✔✔Which of the following types of cells can carry out phagocytosis?
a. Neurons
b. Ependymal cells
c. Microglia
d. Oligodentrocytes - ✔✔c. Microglia
✔✔Somatic sensory nuclei of the spinal cord are located in the lateral horns. .
a. True
b. False - ✔✔False
-Lateral horns - contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Hypothalamus is part of the
a. Reticular formation
b. Forebrain
c. Limbic system
d. Brainstem - ✔✔b. Forebrain
✔✔Blood-Brain Barrier - ✔✔Special anatomy consisting of CNS capillaries that limits
exchange.
-some hydrophobic molecules can pass through such as (steriod hormones) Hudrophilic
hormones such as ( E and NE) cannot
✔✔Capillaries - ✔✔- Sites of exchange between blood and insterstitial fluid
- Thin: single layer of endothelial; Diffusion
✔✔Circumventricular organs - ✔✔Lack of a normal blood-brain barrier. Allow exchange
of signaling molecules ( hormones and cytokines)
✔✔How can some cytokines and hormones can pass through the (BBB) - ✔✔-
Hydrophobic hormones can pass
-Transported across BBB with IL-1, TNF-alpha, IL6
-Circumventricular Organs allow for cytokines to cross by simple diffusion
-Some cytokes can disrupt BBB and gain entry
ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Spinal cord - ✔✔-Cervical 8
-Thoracic 12
-Lumbar 5
-Sacral 5
-Coccygeal 1
-Each have a somatic sensory, motor, visceral sensory and autonomic nerve fibers
✔✔What are important segments associated with spinal nerves? - ✔✔- Dorsal root -
Neurons carry sensory information
- Dorsal root ganglia - where cell bodies of somatic and viseral neurons are located.
- Ventral roots - carry information from CNS to muscles and glands.
- Autonomic gaglia - contain cell bodies of post-ganglionic antonomic neurons.
✔✔What are the two types of Nerve tissue? - ✔✔- Gray matter - Unmyelinated nerve
cell bodies, Clusters of cell bodies in CNS are nuclei, Dendrites, Axon terminals
- White matter - Myelinated axons, axon bundles conecting CNS regions are tracts,
contain very few cell bodies
✔✔Spinal Cord Gray Matter Divisions - ✔✔- Dorsal Horn - Where Afferent somatic
neurons and Afferent visceral neurons connect with interneurons
- Ventral horns - contains cell bodies of motor neurons
-Lateral horns - contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Brain stem - ✔✔-Oldest region of the brain
-connects the forebrain and cerebellum to spinal cord
- Midbrain: connects to forebrain
- Pons: Connects to cerebellum
- Medulla oblongata: connects to spinal cords
-Many brainsten nuclei are associated with reticular formation
- Controls wakefulness, sleep, muscle tone, pain modulation
✔✔Reticular formation - ✔✔-loosey defined network of highly interconnected nuclei in
the brainstem
-three sections
-Comprised of multiple neuromodulatory systems
✔✔Neurons in the neuromodulatory systems - ✔✔project axons to large areas of the
brain
- Release neuromodulators ( DA, NE, E, 5-HT, Ach)
✔✔What are Neuromodulators? - ✔✔are a special type of neurotransmitter that are not
removed from the synaptic cleft quickly can diffuse a long distance
,✔✔Dienecephalon - ✔✔(between brain)
-Thalamus: relay information to cortect
-Hypothalamus: Control of homeostasis
-pituitary gland
-pineal gland
✔✔Cerebrum - ✔✔-Cerebral cortex
-Basal ganglia: control of movement
-Limbic system: link between cognitive function and emotions
- Amygdala and cingulate cortex: emotion and memory
- Hippocampus: learning and memory
✔✔Cerebral cortex - ✔✔-Sensory areas: sesnory input translated intp perception
(awareness)
-Motor areas: direct skeletal muscle movement
-Association areas - intergate information from sensory motor areas
✔✔Limbic system - ✔✔Link between cognitive function and emotions
✔✔Glail Cells (Non-Neuronal Structures) - ✔✔Astrocytes: numerous functions
Ependymal cells: line cavities
Microglia: Phagocyte
Oligodendrocytes: form myelin
Schwann cells ( located in PNS): form myelin
✔✔Astrocytes - ✔✔development of connection between nervous and non-nervous
tissue
-communicate through chemical messengers
-remove neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft
-protect neurons against toxic substances
-glycogen synthesis
-Blood-Brain barrier
✔✔Microglia - ✔✔Helps protect neurons with astrocytes
-Phagocytosis ( clearing out bacterial or dead/injured cells)
-secrete cytokines to modulate brain functions
-Protect the CNS from oxidative stress
✔✔Which of the following endocrine dysregulation contributes to PSTD?
a. An abnormally low level of NE
b. An abnormally log level of E
c. An abnormally low level of cortisol
d. An abnormally low level of CRH - ✔✔c. An abnormally low level of cortisol
, ✔✔Stress can improve or impair learning memory depending on the nature ofthe stress.
a. True
b. False - ✔✔True
✔✔Sensory information from your internal organ is sent to the brain through
thefollowing nerve.
a. General somatic motor nerve
b. General visceral sensory nerve
c. Special visceral sensory nerve
d. Autonomic nerve - ✔✔b. General visceral sensory nerve
✔✔Which of the following types of cells can carry out phagocytosis?
a. Neurons
b. Ependymal cells
c. Microglia
d. Oligodentrocytes - ✔✔c. Microglia
✔✔Somatic sensory nuclei of the spinal cord are located in the lateral horns. .
a. True
b. False - ✔✔False
-Lateral horns - contain cell bodies of pre-ganglionic autonomic neurons
✔✔Hypothalamus is part of the
a. Reticular formation
b. Forebrain
c. Limbic system
d. Brainstem - ✔✔b. Forebrain
✔✔Blood-Brain Barrier - ✔✔Special anatomy consisting of CNS capillaries that limits
exchange.
-some hydrophobic molecules can pass through such as (steriod hormones) Hudrophilic
hormones such as ( E and NE) cannot
✔✔Capillaries - ✔✔- Sites of exchange between blood and insterstitial fluid
- Thin: single layer of endothelial; Diffusion
✔✔Circumventricular organs - ✔✔Lack of a normal blood-brain barrier. Allow exchange
of signaling molecules ( hormones and cytokines)
✔✔How can some cytokines and hormones can pass through the (BBB) - ✔✔-
Hydrophobic hormones can pass
-Transported across BBB with IL-1, TNF-alpha, IL6
-Circumventricular Organs allow for cytokines to cross by simple diffusion
-Some cytokes can disrupt BBB and gain entry
