PSIO 305 ACTUAL EXAM SCRIPT 2025/2026 QUESTIONS
WITH ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Receptive area includes - ✔✔Dendrites
Cell body
✔✔Cell body and dendrites function: - ✔✔receptive area for incoming input from other
neurons
Cell body is also powerhouse and decision maker
Dendrites: primary area for synapses
✔✔Axon - ✔✔-Transmission cable- transmits action potential: Length can vary
✔✔Synapse: - ✔✔site of communication, converting electrical signal to chemical signal.
*trophic support used
✔✔Communication in NS utilizes a relay, meaning? - ✔✔alternating between electrical
and chemical signals.
✔✔Presynaptic = - ✔✔Axon terminal:
contains vesicles of neurotransmitter chemical
messengers (NT's)
✔✔Post Synaptic = - ✔✔replete with receptors for NT's to continue signaling process
✔✔Electrical signal arrives at - ✔✔Synapse
To achieve long distance, rapid communication, neurons have evolved special abilities
for sending electrical signals (action potentials) along axons. This mechanism, called
conduction, is how the cell body of a neuron communicates with its own terminals via
the axon.
✔✔Once electrical signal arrives at synapse: - ✔✔Depolarization of axon terminal or
pre-synaptic bouton
>>causes Ca 2+ channels to open and allow exocytosis to take place
• Neurotransmitter (ligand) released from (Chemical signal) from synaptic vesicle
• Binds to Receptor on post synaptic membrane (electrical converted to chemical)
• Ligand binding opens channel on dendrite/cell body ('ligand gated')
• Ion Flux occurs (current leads to a change in voltage: depolarize or re-polorize)>>
back to electrical signal
✔✔Voltage change - ✔✔•Can see a small local potential
,• If threshold is reached =
get an Action potential
*Classic FAST synapse
✔✔Inotropic Synapses - ✔✔-fast
-activates ion channels
-dependent on ion flux through ligand-gated ion channels, generating voltage changes
from small end plate potentials to action potentials
-Current flow/voltage change (**tropic support used)
✔✔Metabotropic synapses - ✔✔- slow
-post-synaptic response occurs via any of a number of 2nd messenger cell signaling
pathways that result in longer term changes in cell metabolism, protein synthesis or
gene activation.
-Binds to G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR)
-metabotropic becasue they alter the metabloism of the cell>>alter reactions happening
in the cell>>engage a whole other 2nd messenger
-Downstream, slower and more long lasting effects
*trophic support uses
✔✔Dopamine - ✔✔neurotransmitter found in both types of synapses
✔✔Dopamine affects in inotropic synapses - ✔✔Activate ion channels in Basal Ganglia
Affects movement planning
"Do" communication, but can be 'trophic' as well
✔✔Dopamine affects in metatropic synapses - ✔✔Binds to GPCR
In Hypothalamus
Involved in hunger, thirst,
temp regulation
Trophic
✔✔Neuroglia comprises - ✔✔much larger percent of the cells in the nervous system.
✔✔Neuroglia function includes: - ✔✔Supportive (dont discharge AP>> glue of the NS
•Insulation (to minimize current loss or leaks along the axon: -oligodendrocytes- myelin
sheath in CNS, Schwann and satellite cells: myelin in PNS)
,•Regulation of environment (trophic support): influence Ion channels and Transporters
•Regulation of growth via release of glia-derived growth factor (trophic support)
✔✔Sensory input - ✔✔Proprioception: refers to 'knowledge of location of body and
parts'
- Via spinal cord
to Primary Sensory Cortex
✔✔How to indicate location?
(i.e., how do you 'know' where the stimulus came from?) - ✔✔-As with several other
senses it is organized somatotopically ('somata' = body) in the central nervous system
✔✔Explain how the nervous system indicates inputs or stimuli - ✔✔. Input into the
primary sensory cortex is arranged according to the body part from which the sensory
input arose.
For example, as you lean on your elbow, information re: the angle of the elbow joint,
stretch of the skin around the elbow and compression of the skin, muscles & periosteum
pushing on the table will all be sent to the same general area in the primary sensory
cortex. The map of this input is represented by the 'homunculcus' (little man) indicating
the relative sensitivity of each body part, with larger areas indicating more sensory
neurons providing input from a body part, thus more sensory information and therefore
increased sensitivity or increased ability to discriminate stimuli in that body part.
Homunculus indicates relative sensitivity of body parts (i.e. more input)
its helpful to think of the differences in ability to detect fine points of stimuli on the finger
tips vs. the front /top of your thigh.
*process uses trophic support
✔✔Explain how the nervous system indicates intensity of various sensory and
proprioceptive inputs or stimuli - ✔✔Rate coding:
AP frequency is proportional to stimulus intensity
Greater open time or distortion of channel:
-greater ion flux and voltage change (tropic support(
-increase potential for reaching threshold (trophic support)
-increase # of action potentials (trophic support)
✔✔How to indicate character of stimulus?
(i.e, how do you 'know' the speed of onset or rate of adaptation?) - ✔✔Pattern Coding:
, Pattern Indicates type of stimulus
and responsiveness of sensory receptor(trophic support)
characteristics such as speed of onset and duration may be coded by the pattern of
action potentials, e.g. stepping quickly on a small pebble, then continuing to stand on it
might be coded as: a number of quick action potentials (indicating rapid onset of
change) followed by a slightly reduced frequency of on-going action potentials
(indicating a continued stimulus which is now constant in nature)
✔✔"Movement Plan" - ✔✔must take into account many issues: starting point, stopping
point, speed, direction, required force and appropriate muscles to activate.
✔✔'Higher' Motor Centers - - ✔✔•Work as a committee
•Complex
intercommunication
Those 'higher centers' within the cerebrum function as a committee to elaborate the
plan, each member contributing a unique piece to the puzzle. The generalized roles for
each of these 'committee members' are given
✔✔Describe the general steps in developing a movement plan (or motor command).
Identify the components of the nervous system that are involved and the role each plays
in the process. - ✔✔'Motor Planning Committee':
First: Frontal lobe association area and pre motor cortex:
next: Primary motor cortex (in frontal lobe)
Next, the primary sensory cortex (Parietal lobe):
After, an association area in Parietal lobe:
Then the Cerebellum
Lastly: Basal Ganglia:
✔✔Frontal lobe consists of: - ✔✔-Association cortex (Prefrontal area)
-Primary Motor Cortex
✔✔Parietal lobe consists of: - ✔✔-Primary Sensory Cortex -Association cortex
✔✔Frontal lobe association area and pre motor cortex: - ✔✔involved very early in
formulating the plan (initiation, idea, why/how this plan, etc.).
✔✔Primary motor cortex (in frontal lobe) - ✔✔relays final movements plan to spinal cord
to activate relevant motor units (and muscles) for movement.
Motor cortex activated by flexing a single finger
WITH ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔Receptive area includes - ✔✔Dendrites
Cell body
✔✔Cell body and dendrites function: - ✔✔receptive area for incoming input from other
neurons
Cell body is also powerhouse and decision maker
Dendrites: primary area for synapses
✔✔Axon - ✔✔-Transmission cable- transmits action potential: Length can vary
✔✔Synapse: - ✔✔site of communication, converting electrical signal to chemical signal.
*trophic support used
✔✔Communication in NS utilizes a relay, meaning? - ✔✔alternating between electrical
and chemical signals.
✔✔Presynaptic = - ✔✔Axon terminal:
contains vesicles of neurotransmitter chemical
messengers (NT's)
✔✔Post Synaptic = - ✔✔replete with receptors for NT's to continue signaling process
✔✔Electrical signal arrives at - ✔✔Synapse
To achieve long distance, rapid communication, neurons have evolved special abilities
for sending electrical signals (action potentials) along axons. This mechanism, called
conduction, is how the cell body of a neuron communicates with its own terminals via
the axon.
✔✔Once electrical signal arrives at synapse: - ✔✔Depolarization of axon terminal or
pre-synaptic bouton
>>causes Ca 2+ channels to open and allow exocytosis to take place
• Neurotransmitter (ligand) released from (Chemical signal) from synaptic vesicle
• Binds to Receptor on post synaptic membrane (electrical converted to chemical)
• Ligand binding opens channel on dendrite/cell body ('ligand gated')
• Ion Flux occurs (current leads to a change in voltage: depolarize or re-polorize)>>
back to electrical signal
✔✔Voltage change - ✔✔•Can see a small local potential
,• If threshold is reached =
get an Action potential
*Classic FAST synapse
✔✔Inotropic Synapses - ✔✔-fast
-activates ion channels
-dependent on ion flux through ligand-gated ion channels, generating voltage changes
from small end plate potentials to action potentials
-Current flow/voltage change (**tropic support used)
✔✔Metabotropic synapses - ✔✔- slow
-post-synaptic response occurs via any of a number of 2nd messenger cell signaling
pathways that result in longer term changes in cell metabolism, protein synthesis or
gene activation.
-Binds to G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR)
-metabotropic becasue they alter the metabloism of the cell>>alter reactions happening
in the cell>>engage a whole other 2nd messenger
-Downstream, slower and more long lasting effects
*trophic support uses
✔✔Dopamine - ✔✔neurotransmitter found in both types of synapses
✔✔Dopamine affects in inotropic synapses - ✔✔Activate ion channels in Basal Ganglia
Affects movement planning
"Do" communication, but can be 'trophic' as well
✔✔Dopamine affects in metatropic synapses - ✔✔Binds to GPCR
In Hypothalamus
Involved in hunger, thirst,
temp regulation
Trophic
✔✔Neuroglia comprises - ✔✔much larger percent of the cells in the nervous system.
✔✔Neuroglia function includes: - ✔✔Supportive (dont discharge AP>> glue of the NS
•Insulation (to minimize current loss or leaks along the axon: -oligodendrocytes- myelin
sheath in CNS, Schwann and satellite cells: myelin in PNS)
,•Regulation of environment (trophic support): influence Ion channels and Transporters
•Regulation of growth via release of glia-derived growth factor (trophic support)
✔✔Sensory input - ✔✔Proprioception: refers to 'knowledge of location of body and
parts'
- Via spinal cord
to Primary Sensory Cortex
✔✔How to indicate location?
(i.e., how do you 'know' where the stimulus came from?) - ✔✔-As with several other
senses it is organized somatotopically ('somata' = body) in the central nervous system
✔✔Explain how the nervous system indicates inputs or stimuli - ✔✔. Input into the
primary sensory cortex is arranged according to the body part from which the sensory
input arose.
For example, as you lean on your elbow, information re: the angle of the elbow joint,
stretch of the skin around the elbow and compression of the skin, muscles & periosteum
pushing on the table will all be sent to the same general area in the primary sensory
cortex. The map of this input is represented by the 'homunculcus' (little man) indicating
the relative sensitivity of each body part, with larger areas indicating more sensory
neurons providing input from a body part, thus more sensory information and therefore
increased sensitivity or increased ability to discriminate stimuli in that body part.
Homunculus indicates relative sensitivity of body parts (i.e. more input)
its helpful to think of the differences in ability to detect fine points of stimuli on the finger
tips vs. the front /top of your thigh.
*process uses trophic support
✔✔Explain how the nervous system indicates intensity of various sensory and
proprioceptive inputs or stimuli - ✔✔Rate coding:
AP frequency is proportional to stimulus intensity
Greater open time or distortion of channel:
-greater ion flux and voltage change (tropic support(
-increase potential for reaching threshold (trophic support)
-increase # of action potentials (trophic support)
✔✔How to indicate character of stimulus?
(i.e, how do you 'know' the speed of onset or rate of adaptation?) - ✔✔Pattern Coding:
, Pattern Indicates type of stimulus
and responsiveness of sensory receptor(trophic support)
characteristics such as speed of onset and duration may be coded by the pattern of
action potentials, e.g. stepping quickly on a small pebble, then continuing to stand on it
might be coded as: a number of quick action potentials (indicating rapid onset of
change) followed by a slightly reduced frequency of on-going action potentials
(indicating a continued stimulus which is now constant in nature)
✔✔"Movement Plan" - ✔✔must take into account many issues: starting point, stopping
point, speed, direction, required force and appropriate muscles to activate.
✔✔'Higher' Motor Centers - - ✔✔•Work as a committee
•Complex
intercommunication
Those 'higher centers' within the cerebrum function as a committee to elaborate the
plan, each member contributing a unique piece to the puzzle. The generalized roles for
each of these 'committee members' are given
✔✔Describe the general steps in developing a movement plan (or motor command).
Identify the components of the nervous system that are involved and the role each plays
in the process. - ✔✔'Motor Planning Committee':
First: Frontal lobe association area and pre motor cortex:
next: Primary motor cortex (in frontal lobe)
Next, the primary sensory cortex (Parietal lobe):
After, an association area in Parietal lobe:
Then the Cerebellum
Lastly: Basal Ganglia:
✔✔Frontal lobe consists of: - ✔✔-Association cortex (Prefrontal area)
-Primary Motor Cortex
✔✔Parietal lobe consists of: - ✔✔-Primary Sensory Cortex -Association cortex
✔✔Frontal lobe association area and pre motor cortex: - ✔✔involved very early in
formulating the plan (initiation, idea, why/how this plan, etc.).
✔✔Primary motor cortex (in frontal lobe) - ✔✔relays final movements plan to spinal cord
to activate relevant motor units (and muscles) for movement.
Motor cortex activated by flexing a single finger
