, Instructor’s Answer Guide
For authorized instructors using the second edition of
A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar
by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, and Brett Reynolds
(Cambridge University Press, 2022, v1.0, Oct 31, 2021)
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 2 Chapter 9 70
Chapter 2 5 Chapter 10 75
Chapter 3 10 Chapter 11 81
Chapter 4 22 Chapter 12 92
Chapter 5 33 Chapter 13 100
Chapter 6 42 Chapter 14 106
Chapter 7 52 Chapter 15 113
Chapter 8 61 Chapter 16 118
Copyright © by the authors All rights reserved
,Chapter 1
1. Consider the words the, dog, ran, and away. Which are the three grammatical orders
of those words? Discuss any possible grounds for doubt or disagreement that you see.
We actually don't see any grounds for doubting that just three possible orders of
{the, dog, ran, away} are grammatical, but perhaps some students might query
this, and come up with ideas that are worth discussing. The exercise is not very
important, but it provides a reminder that nearly all strings of words you could
write down are ungrammatical. For any list of n words, there are n! different
orders they could be arranged in (we can allow some of the words in a list to be
duplications of others in the list). The notation n! denotes the factorial of n; that
is, n times n – 1 times n – 2 times n – 3... and so on down to 1. So 10! = 10 × 9 ×
8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3,628,800 orders. Our point is that out of the n!
arrangements of n words, almost all are complete gibberish. The strings of
English words that comply with all the requirements of English grammar are
very few in number relative to all the possible strings that could be constructed.
The bottom-line lesson about language learning is that someone who wants to
learn a language has only just begun the task when they have learned all the
words!
2. Consider what features of the following sentences mark them as belonging to formal
style in Standard English. Rewrite them in a more informal style, keeping the
meaning as close as possible to the original. Add notes on what you changed and why.
(The following are sample answers and should not be taken to be the only correct
responses.)
i To whom am I speaking? → Who am I speaking to?
Changed whom to who and put to at the end because these both feel like less
formal choices, and they seem to go together.
ii It would be a pity if he were to give up now. → It would be sad if he gave up
now.
Nobody says a pity these days, and he were sounds formal. Also, if he gave up is
shorter than if he were to give up.
iii We hid the documents, lest they be confiscated. → We hid the documents, to stop
them from being confiscated.
Again, nobody uses lest these days. But without lest the sentence needs to be
longer to say the same thing. I guess longer isn’t more formal.
iv That which but twenty years ago was a mystery now seems routine. → What was
a mystery just twenty years ago now seems routine.
It seems too formal to say that which instead of just what. And usually but isn’t
formal, yet this use of but seems very formal, even archaic. One more lesson in
how little of the learning task has been accomplished once you know the words!
v One should always try to do one’s best. → You should always do your best.
You and one have the same meaning here, but you (pronounced ya) is more
informal. It doesn’t mean “you, the person I’m talking to”. It just means
somebody, any person.
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 2 All rights reserved
,3. For each of the following statements, say whether it is a morphological, syntactic, or
semantic fact about English (see §1.2.1).
Keep in mind that if it's about the internal makeup of words, the answer is that it
is morphological; if it's about the way words (regardless of their meanings)
combine into sentences, it's syntactic; and if it's about meaning — what the
sentence would be literally saying if it were uttered in some context — then it's
semantic.
i A completed grammatical sentence of Standard English that begins ‘I believe
that we… ’ must continue in a way that includes at least one verb.
syntactic
ii A witness who used to be a smoker would be wrong to answer No to the question
Did you ever smoke?
semantic
iii Of can occur as the last word in a Standard English sentence.
syntactic
iv The string of words *He it saw can be made grammatical by positioning the
word it after the word saw.
syntactic
v The verb enable is formed from able by adding the en⋅ prefix.
morphological
vi We find fell rather than *falled, because fall doesn’t take the ⋅ed suffix.
morphological
vii When someone says I was going to walk but I decided not to, the sense is exactly
the same as if they had said I was going to walk but I decided not to walk.
This shows that syntax and semantics are very often tightly related, but the focus
here is semantic.
viii Wherever we can truthfully say Montmorency bought a red Porsche, we can also
say Montmorency bought a Porsche, but not conversely.
semantic
ix You can’t insert every at random points in the sentence A man’s got to do what a
man’s got to do and get a grammatical result every time.
syntactic
x You can’t sincerely say I believe Sally slapped the boss if you think that The
boss was slapped by Sally is a lie.
Again, this is mainly semantic, but it relies on a syntactic fact.
4. You may have heard people talk about a noun functioning as an adjective or a verb
functioning as a noun. Under the framework we’ve described here, what’s wrong with
such a description? (See §§1.3.2 and 1.3.3.)
Nouns, adjectives, and verbs are lexical categories. There are other concepts,
such as subject, modifier, and head, which are functions. Categories perform
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 3 All rights reserved
, functions. In this framework, it doesn’t make sense to say that a category
functions as another category. It’s a little like saying that a snake (category) that
you name and keep in your home is functioning as a dog (category) instead of as
a pet (function).
5. Consider the sentence Jupiter and Saturn are planets. Here, the subject is Jupiter and
Saturn. Based on this, we form the following hypothesis: When the subject has two
constituents joined by and, if the choice is between are and is, are is always correct.
To check that this is true, should you search for examples with the form ‘NP and NP
are’, or for examples with the form ‘NP and NP is’? Explain why.
We should search for is examples. We already have an example with are, so
further examples will not help us understand whether the hypothesis is always
correct or not. If we can find a valid example with is, though, then we can reject
the hypothesis.
6. List three or four grammar ‘rules’ you recall hearing about (e.g., Don’t start a
sentence with and). For each rule, say whether you believe that violating that rule
would (a) result in an ungrammatical sentence, (b) produce a grammatical sentence in
a non-standard dialect but not in Standard English, (c) produce a markedly informal
Standard English sentence, or (d) produce Standard English that some people don’t
like for no obvious reason.
(No key provided; this is an open discussion exercise.)
7. [Supplementary exercise] Choose one or two language references (of any language;
grammars, style books, usage guides, or dictionaries) from those accessible to you.
Say whether you think they are focused on describing the language or advising the
language user, and explain why.
Consider the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, in particular, its
entry for suggest. This seems to be focused on describing the language, including
the usual meaning of words (with the most common listed first), typical patterns
(e.g. suggest something to somebody), and data about word frequency (suggest
appears in the top 1,000 word families in both written and spoken English, viz
S1 & W1). It also gives typical examples from a corpus. It also provides advice,
though
(e.g., ✗Don’t say: He suggested us a solution).
8. [Supplementary exercise] We have explained that Standard English is ‘just a name’,
but it still offends some people (because of the confusion between ‘not standard’ and
‘substandard’). You will see throughout this book that we believe finding the right
term for a concept is important. Can you think of an alternative name for Standard
English that would be better? Explain the pros and cons of one or two candidate
terms.
If you’re having trouble finding examples, consider one of the following:
1. Colonial English
2. Dominant English
3. English (just the language name, without any qualifier)
4. Proper English
5. Standardized English
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 4 All rights reserved
,Chapter 2
1. Divide the MAIN CLAUSES of the following examples into subject and predicate.
Underline the subject and double-underline the predicate. For example: This is the
house that Jack built.
i I think it’s a disgrace.
ii The guy in that house over there works for the city.
iii Most of the mistakes he made were very minor.
iv The thing that puzzles me is why no one called the police.
v One of her daughters is training to be a pilot.
vi Paul’s aunts had driven up in a U-haul.
vii Unfortunately, there was nothing he could do about it.
viii Even when she suspected the house was empty, she would knock.
ix It’s a genre of hip-hop.
x Malcolm, you should spend the day in Saint-Denis.
2. The underlined expressions in the following examples are all NPs. State the function
of each one (either subject or direct object or predicative complement).
i I’ve just seen your father. direct object
ii The old lady lived alone. subject
iii Sue wrote that editorial. direct object
iv She’s the editor of the local paper. predicative complement
%It
v sounds a promising idea to me. predicative complement
vi Yuri didn’t feel any pressure from the direct object
president. In the sense of “have a tactile
experience”, feel takes a direct
object, but in the sense of “have a
subjective experience” (e.g., I feel
happy), it takes a predicative
complement.
vii Isn’t someone championing this more? subject
The subject follows a verb in many
questions.
viii With two years of experience, Pounds subject
had multiple offers from which to choose.
ix Mr. Barakat’s work supplying dental predicative complement
care to needy people in the Middle East has
become one powerful antidote.
x ‘Wall-to-wall clutter becomes you,’ direct object
Yumi said to Jacobus.
Even though become usually takes
predicative complements, here, it has
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 5 All rights reserved
, a special meaning of “suit”, which
takes a direct object.
3. Assign each word in the following examples to one of the lexical categories: noun
(N), verb (V), adjective (Adj), determinative (D), adverb (Adv), preposition
(Prep), subordinator (Sub), coordinator (Co), or interjection (Int).
Keep in mind that under the analysis presented in this book, pronouns are just
nouns of a special sort, so you treat them as nouns, and that auxiliaries
(including the copula, be) are just verbs of a special sort, so you treat them as
verbs. Any dictionary will work for many of these words, but, unfortunately,
most dictionaries will miscategorize D, along with some Adv, Prep, and Sub. As
of this writing, all of these words are correctly categorized in the Simple
English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary source for
lexical categorization.
i Oh Int, she N often Adv goes V to P Moscow N.
ii The D dog N was V barking V.
iii Sue N and Co Ed N walked V to P the D park N.
iv I N met V some D friends N of P the D new Adj boss N.
V We N know V that Sub these D things N are V extremely Adv expensive Adj.
vi It N doesn’t V matter V that Sub you N did V it N.
vii If P you N would V like V to Sub leave V us N a voicemail N, too Adv bad Adj.
viii Having V an D Etsy N shop N makes V me N feel V like P that D again Adv.
ix I N agree V with P that D.
x They N provide V some D analytics N, but Co only Adv to P account N holders N.
4. [Supplementary exercise] Construct a plausible-sounding, grammatical sentence that
uses at least one word from each of the nine categories listed in the previous exercise
(see [2] in §2.1.1 of this chapter).
With this one you don't really need any hints. We've decided not to give any
suggested solution. The exercise is easy provided there is no limit to the total
number of words in the sentence, and there is no upper limit on how many
right answers there are. In fact, it should be expected that everyone will
construct a different answer, even if millions of people do this exercise.
This is not an exaggeration. It is an interesting fact that in English text
generally, if you look at how many different words could come next at a given
point, it generally averages out to about 10 — very few at some points, but large
numbers at some other points. So, this means that if you write a 10-word
sentence and someone else constructs the same 10-word sentence, the chances
that it happened by accident (rather than because of you shared sentences) are
somewhere in the region of 1 in 10,000,000,000. And as sentences get longer,
the probability of two people hitting on the same sentence by accident gets
dramatically lower.
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 6 All rights reserved
,5. Identify the head in each phrase.
(the head is underlined)
i by using one of the premium scripts that are easily available online (PP)
ii either way (NP)
iii with so much at stake (PP)
iv hear about the project again (VP)
v just (AdvP)
(a single-word phrase still has a head)
vi may have already stopped rising (VP)
vii very many (DP)
viii seems highly unlikely that this is working as intended (VP)
ix so glad that you wrote this (AdjP)
x the Toronto waterfront trail (NP)
6. Identify the underlined verbs as auxiliary or lexical.
i Repeating it was going to be a waste of time. lexical
ii He asked Ezra to dim the lights. lexical
iii !It ain’t all about YouTube videos. auxiliary
iv The crew tries to fight the monster. lexical
v They must not be too baggy. auxiliary
vi When my kids were little I got hampers and removed the lids. lexical
vii Why can’t I get to the Settings app that everybody keeps talking about? auxiliary
viii We’ve been having difficulty in controlling the ever-growing wolf lexical
population.
ix Your bread probably did rise faster there. auxiliary
x Your repetition of the assertion does not make it true. lexical
7. Classify the main clauses below as canonical or non-canonical clauses. For the non-
canonical ones, say which non-canonical clause category or categories they belong to
(see §2.4).
i Most of us enjoyed it very much. canonical
ii Have you seen Tom recently? closed interrogative
iii He tends to exaggerate. canonical
iv Who said she was unhappy? open interrogative
v I’ve never seen anything like it. canonical
vi They invited me but I couldn’t go. coordinate
vii This house was built by my grandfather. passive
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 7 All rights reserved
, viii It’s a pity you live so far away. unusual order1
ix I’m sure she likes you. canonical
x Tell me what you want. imperative
8. Identify the functions of the following AdjPs as predicative complement or modifier
(see §2.6.1).
i Clerks get specific training in modifier
responsible liquor sales.
ii Dizziness is the most common symptom modifier
noted.
iii For me, it’s my top choice. modifier
iv I won’t get specific, but she likes some predicative complement
intense things.
v Icelanders respected indigenous modifier
narrative traditions.
vi My hunting licence is good everywhere predicative complement
in this state.
vii So what causes ice to look blue? predicative complement
viii The only place to find a significant modifier
supply of oil is at Sleepy Bay.
ix The simple things probably sound a bit predicative complement
silly.
x They could have gotten that same cheap modifier
thrill from any other box.
9. Identify the underlined words as adjectives, determinatives, or pronouns.
i a specific set of cards adjective
ii some paradigm-smashing determinative
iii the exact same predicament adjective
iv the results of these pair-wise contests determinative
v their own clothing line pronoun
vi this need of ours pronoun
vii this sense of the country losing its determinative
norms
viii unless anyone has one of those determinative
1
This is a bit unfair since you don’t have enough information to do it until §16.8. The canonical (though less
common) form would be That you live so far away is a pity.
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 8 All rights reserved
, ix for every 500 posts determinative
x certain times determinative2
10. Given what you know of our view of categories and functions, which of the following
sentences are true in our view of the grammar?
i A noun can function as an adjective in an NP. false
ii A predicate always needs a subject. false
iii A clause is a kind of phrase. true
iv An AdjP can be headed by a verb. false
vi Coordinators never function as the head of a phrase. true
v Every phrase has a head. true
vii NPs can function as subjects, objects, and predicative complements. true
viii Only an AdjP can function as a predicative complement. false
ix The head of an AdjP is an adjective. true
x The subject always has the form of an NP. false
2
There is also an adjective certain as in I’m certain that you’re right. Again, as of this writing, all of these
words are correctly categorized in the Simple English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary
source for lexical categorization.
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 9 All rights reserved
For authorized instructors using the second edition of
A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar
by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, and Brett Reynolds
(Cambridge University Press, 2022, v1.0, Oct 31, 2021)
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 2 Chapter 9 70
Chapter 2 5 Chapter 10 75
Chapter 3 10 Chapter 11 81
Chapter 4 22 Chapter 12 92
Chapter 5 33 Chapter 13 100
Chapter 6 42 Chapter 14 106
Chapter 7 52 Chapter 15 113
Chapter 8 61 Chapter 16 118
Copyright © by the authors All rights reserved
,Chapter 1
1. Consider the words the, dog, ran, and away. Which are the three grammatical orders
of those words? Discuss any possible grounds for doubt or disagreement that you see.
We actually don't see any grounds for doubting that just three possible orders of
{the, dog, ran, away} are grammatical, but perhaps some students might query
this, and come up with ideas that are worth discussing. The exercise is not very
important, but it provides a reminder that nearly all strings of words you could
write down are ungrammatical. For any list of n words, there are n! different
orders they could be arranged in (we can allow some of the words in a list to be
duplications of others in the list). The notation n! denotes the factorial of n; that
is, n times n – 1 times n – 2 times n – 3... and so on down to 1. So 10! = 10 × 9 ×
8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3,628,800 orders. Our point is that out of the n!
arrangements of n words, almost all are complete gibberish. The strings of
English words that comply with all the requirements of English grammar are
very few in number relative to all the possible strings that could be constructed.
The bottom-line lesson about language learning is that someone who wants to
learn a language has only just begun the task when they have learned all the
words!
2. Consider what features of the following sentences mark them as belonging to formal
style in Standard English. Rewrite them in a more informal style, keeping the
meaning as close as possible to the original. Add notes on what you changed and why.
(The following are sample answers and should not be taken to be the only correct
responses.)
i To whom am I speaking? → Who am I speaking to?
Changed whom to who and put to at the end because these both feel like less
formal choices, and they seem to go together.
ii It would be a pity if he were to give up now. → It would be sad if he gave up
now.
Nobody says a pity these days, and he were sounds formal. Also, if he gave up is
shorter than if he were to give up.
iii We hid the documents, lest they be confiscated. → We hid the documents, to stop
them from being confiscated.
Again, nobody uses lest these days. But without lest the sentence needs to be
longer to say the same thing. I guess longer isn’t more formal.
iv That which but twenty years ago was a mystery now seems routine. → What was
a mystery just twenty years ago now seems routine.
It seems too formal to say that which instead of just what. And usually but isn’t
formal, yet this use of but seems very formal, even archaic. One more lesson in
how little of the learning task has been accomplished once you know the words!
v One should always try to do one’s best. → You should always do your best.
You and one have the same meaning here, but you (pronounced ya) is more
informal. It doesn’t mean “you, the person I’m talking to”. It just means
somebody, any person.
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 2 All rights reserved
,3. For each of the following statements, say whether it is a morphological, syntactic, or
semantic fact about English (see §1.2.1).
Keep in mind that if it's about the internal makeup of words, the answer is that it
is morphological; if it's about the way words (regardless of their meanings)
combine into sentences, it's syntactic; and if it's about meaning — what the
sentence would be literally saying if it were uttered in some context — then it's
semantic.
i A completed grammatical sentence of Standard English that begins ‘I believe
that we… ’ must continue in a way that includes at least one verb.
syntactic
ii A witness who used to be a smoker would be wrong to answer No to the question
Did you ever smoke?
semantic
iii Of can occur as the last word in a Standard English sentence.
syntactic
iv The string of words *He it saw can be made grammatical by positioning the
word it after the word saw.
syntactic
v The verb enable is formed from able by adding the en⋅ prefix.
morphological
vi We find fell rather than *falled, because fall doesn’t take the ⋅ed suffix.
morphological
vii When someone says I was going to walk but I decided not to, the sense is exactly
the same as if they had said I was going to walk but I decided not to walk.
This shows that syntax and semantics are very often tightly related, but the focus
here is semantic.
viii Wherever we can truthfully say Montmorency bought a red Porsche, we can also
say Montmorency bought a Porsche, but not conversely.
semantic
ix You can’t insert every at random points in the sentence A man’s got to do what a
man’s got to do and get a grammatical result every time.
syntactic
x You can’t sincerely say I believe Sally slapped the boss if you think that The
boss was slapped by Sally is a lie.
Again, this is mainly semantic, but it relies on a syntactic fact.
4. You may have heard people talk about a noun functioning as an adjective or a verb
functioning as a noun. Under the framework we’ve described here, what’s wrong with
such a description? (See §§1.3.2 and 1.3.3.)
Nouns, adjectives, and verbs are lexical categories. There are other concepts,
such as subject, modifier, and head, which are functions. Categories perform
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 3 All rights reserved
, functions. In this framework, it doesn’t make sense to say that a category
functions as another category. It’s a little like saying that a snake (category) that
you name and keep in your home is functioning as a dog (category) instead of as
a pet (function).
5. Consider the sentence Jupiter and Saturn are planets. Here, the subject is Jupiter and
Saturn. Based on this, we form the following hypothesis: When the subject has two
constituents joined by and, if the choice is between are and is, are is always correct.
To check that this is true, should you search for examples with the form ‘NP and NP
are’, or for examples with the form ‘NP and NP is’? Explain why.
We should search for is examples. We already have an example with are, so
further examples will not help us understand whether the hypothesis is always
correct or not. If we can find a valid example with is, though, then we can reject
the hypothesis.
6. List three or four grammar ‘rules’ you recall hearing about (e.g., Don’t start a
sentence with and). For each rule, say whether you believe that violating that rule
would (a) result in an ungrammatical sentence, (b) produce a grammatical sentence in
a non-standard dialect but not in Standard English, (c) produce a markedly informal
Standard English sentence, or (d) produce Standard English that some people don’t
like for no obvious reason.
(No key provided; this is an open discussion exercise.)
7. [Supplementary exercise] Choose one or two language references (of any language;
grammars, style books, usage guides, or dictionaries) from those accessible to you.
Say whether you think they are focused on describing the language or advising the
language user, and explain why.
Consider the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, in particular, its
entry for suggest. This seems to be focused on describing the language, including
the usual meaning of words (with the most common listed first), typical patterns
(e.g. suggest something to somebody), and data about word frequency (suggest
appears in the top 1,000 word families in both written and spoken English, viz
S1 & W1). It also gives typical examples from a corpus. It also provides advice,
though
(e.g., ✗Don’t say: He suggested us a solution).
8. [Supplementary exercise] We have explained that Standard English is ‘just a name’,
but it still offends some people (because of the confusion between ‘not standard’ and
‘substandard’). You will see throughout this book that we believe finding the right
term for a concept is important. Can you think of an alternative name for Standard
English that would be better? Explain the pros and cons of one or two candidate
terms.
If you’re having trouble finding examples, consider one of the following:
1. Colonial English
2. Dominant English
3. English (just the language name, without any qualifier)
4. Proper English
5. Standardized English
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 4 All rights reserved
,Chapter 2
1. Divide the MAIN CLAUSES of the following examples into subject and predicate.
Underline the subject and double-underline the predicate. For example: This is the
house that Jack built.
i I think it’s a disgrace.
ii The guy in that house over there works for the city.
iii Most of the mistakes he made were very minor.
iv The thing that puzzles me is why no one called the police.
v One of her daughters is training to be a pilot.
vi Paul’s aunts had driven up in a U-haul.
vii Unfortunately, there was nothing he could do about it.
viii Even when she suspected the house was empty, she would knock.
ix It’s a genre of hip-hop.
x Malcolm, you should spend the day in Saint-Denis.
2. The underlined expressions in the following examples are all NPs. State the function
of each one (either subject or direct object or predicative complement).
i I’ve just seen your father. direct object
ii The old lady lived alone. subject
iii Sue wrote that editorial. direct object
iv She’s the editor of the local paper. predicative complement
%It
v sounds a promising idea to me. predicative complement
vi Yuri didn’t feel any pressure from the direct object
president. In the sense of “have a tactile
experience”, feel takes a direct
object, but in the sense of “have a
subjective experience” (e.g., I feel
happy), it takes a predicative
complement.
vii Isn’t someone championing this more? subject
The subject follows a verb in many
questions.
viii With two years of experience, Pounds subject
had multiple offers from which to choose.
ix Mr. Barakat’s work supplying dental predicative complement
care to needy people in the Middle East has
become one powerful antidote.
x ‘Wall-to-wall clutter becomes you,’ direct object
Yumi said to Jacobus.
Even though become usually takes
predicative complements, here, it has
Copyright © 2022 by the authors 5 All rights reserved
, a special meaning of “suit”, which
takes a direct object.
3. Assign each word in the following examples to one of the lexical categories: noun
(N), verb (V), adjective (Adj), determinative (D), adverb (Adv), preposition
(Prep), subordinator (Sub), coordinator (Co), or interjection (Int).
Keep in mind that under the analysis presented in this book, pronouns are just
nouns of a special sort, so you treat them as nouns, and that auxiliaries
(including the copula, be) are just verbs of a special sort, so you treat them as
verbs. Any dictionary will work for many of these words, but, unfortunately,
most dictionaries will miscategorize D, along with some Adv, Prep, and Sub. As
of this writing, all of these words are correctly categorized in the Simple
English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary source for
lexical categorization.
i Oh Int, she N often Adv goes V to P Moscow N.
ii The D dog N was V barking V.
iii Sue N and Co Ed N walked V to P the D park N.
iv I N met V some D friends N of P the D new Adj boss N.
V We N know V that Sub these D things N are V extremely Adv expensive Adj.
vi It N doesn’t V matter V that Sub you N did V it N.
vii If P you N would V like V to Sub leave V us N a voicemail N, too Adv bad Adj.
viii Having V an D Etsy N shop N makes V me N feel V like P that D again Adv.
ix I N agree V with P that D.
x They N provide V some D analytics N, but Co only Adv to P account N holders N.
4. [Supplementary exercise] Construct a plausible-sounding, grammatical sentence that
uses at least one word from each of the nine categories listed in the previous exercise
(see [2] in §2.1.1 of this chapter).
With this one you don't really need any hints. We've decided not to give any
suggested solution. The exercise is easy provided there is no limit to the total
number of words in the sentence, and there is no upper limit on how many
right answers there are. In fact, it should be expected that everyone will
construct a different answer, even if millions of people do this exercise.
This is not an exaggeration. It is an interesting fact that in English text
generally, if you look at how many different words could come next at a given
point, it generally averages out to about 10 — very few at some points, but large
numbers at some other points. So, this means that if you write a 10-word
sentence and someone else constructs the same 10-word sentence, the chances
that it happened by accident (rather than because of you shared sentences) are
somewhere in the region of 1 in 10,000,000,000. And as sentences get longer,
the probability of two people hitting on the same sentence by accident gets
dramatically lower.
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,5. Identify the head in each phrase.
(the head is underlined)
i by using one of the premium scripts that are easily available online (PP)
ii either way (NP)
iii with so much at stake (PP)
iv hear about the project again (VP)
v just (AdvP)
(a single-word phrase still has a head)
vi may have already stopped rising (VP)
vii very many (DP)
viii seems highly unlikely that this is working as intended (VP)
ix so glad that you wrote this (AdjP)
x the Toronto waterfront trail (NP)
6. Identify the underlined verbs as auxiliary or lexical.
i Repeating it was going to be a waste of time. lexical
ii He asked Ezra to dim the lights. lexical
iii !It ain’t all about YouTube videos. auxiliary
iv The crew tries to fight the monster. lexical
v They must not be too baggy. auxiliary
vi When my kids were little I got hampers and removed the lids. lexical
vii Why can’t I get to the Settings app that everybody keeps talking about? auxiliary
viii We’ve been having difficulty in controlling the ever-growing wolf lexical
population.
ix Your bread probably did rise faster there. auxiliary
x Your repetition of the assertion does not make it true. lexical
7. Classify the main clauses below as canonical or non-canonical clauses. For the non-
canonical ones, say which non-canonical clause category or categories they belong to
(see §2.4).
i Most of us enjoyed it very much. canonical
ii Have you seen Tom recently? closed interrogative
iii He tends to exaggerate. canonical
iv Who said she was unhappy? open interrogative
v I’ve never seen anything like it. canonical
vi They invited me but I couldn’t go. coordinate
vii This house was built by my grandfather. passive
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, viii It’s a pity you live so far away. unusual order1
ix I’m sure she likes you. canonical
x Tell me what you want. imperative
8. Identify the functions of the following AdjPs as predicative complement or modifier
(see §2.6.1).
i Clerks get specific training in modifier
responsible liquor sales.
ii Dizziness is the most common symptom modifier
noted.
iii For me, it’s my top choice. modifier
iv I won’t get specific, but she likes some predicative complement
intense things.
v Icelanders respected indigenous modifier
narrative traditions.
vi My hunting licence is good everywhere predicative complement
in this state.
vii So what causes ice to look blue? predicative complement
viii The only place to find a significant modifier
supply of oil is at Sleepy Bay.
ix The simple things probably sound a bit predicative complement
silly.
x They could have gotten that same cheap modifier
thrill from any other box.
9. Identify the underlined words as adjectives, determinatives, or pronouns.
i a specific set of cards adjective
ii some paradigm-smashing determinative
iii the exact same predicament adjective
iv the results of these pair-wise contests determinative
v their own clothing line pronoun
vi this need of ours pronoun
vii this sense of the country losing its determinative
norms
viii unless anyone has one of those determinative
1
This is a bit unfair since you don’t have enough information to do it until §16.8. The canonical (though less
common) form would be That you live so far away is a pity.
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, ix for every 500 posts determinative
x certain times determinative2
10. Given what you know of our view of categories and functions, which of the following
sentences are true in our view of the grammar?
i A noun can function as an adjective in an NP. false
ii A predicate always needs a subject. false
iii A clause is a kind of phrase. true
iv An AdjP can be headed by a verb. false
vi Coordinators never function as the head of a phrase. true
v Every phrase has a head. true
vii NPs can function as subjects, objects, and predicative complements. true
viii Only an AdjP can function as a predicative complement. false
ix The head of an AdjP is an adjective. true
x The subject always has the form of an NP. false
2
There is also an adjective certain as in I’m certain that you’re right. Again, as of this writing, all of these
words are correctly categorized in the Simple English Wiktionary, and we suggest you use it as your primary
source for lexical categorization.
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