Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
Investigation into how humidity and pollutants vary in Windsor, and the effect of
pollutants on the urban heat island
Contents
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Preliminary Reading ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Planned Route: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Actual Route .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data ............................................................................................................................... 24
Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 – Urban Temperature Variations ............. 3 Figure 4.6 – Actual Routes .....................................22
Figure 1.2 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London 3 Figure 4.7 – Changes to Planned Route .................23
Figure 1.3 - London NO2 Levels ............................... 4 Table 1 – All Data Collected ...................................24
Figure 1.4 – Effect of Urban Areas on Factors .......... 4 Figure 5.1 – Photograph of Royal Windsor Way .....26
Figure 2.1 – Rizwan Ahmed, factors affecting urban Figure 5.2 – Daytime 10um recordings ..................26
heat islands ............................................................. 5 Figure 5.3 – Daytime 2.5um recordings .................27
Figure 2.2 – Relationship between Altitude and Figure 5.4 – Photograph of St Leonards Hill,
Temperature ........................................................... 6 Illingworth .............................................................27
Figure 2.3 – Relationship between Humidity and Figure 5.5 – Evening 10um recordings .................28
Temperature ........................................................... 7 Figure 5.6 – Daytime temperature recordings .......28
Figure 2.4 – Location of Windsor ............................. 8 Figure 5.7 – Photograph of Aston Mead ...............29
Figure 2.5 – Area of Data Collection in Windsor ....... 8 Figure 5.8 – Photograph of Oakley Green .............29
Figure 2.6 – Map and Scale of London compared to Figure 5.9 – Evening temperature recordings ........29
Windsor................................................................... 9 Figure 5.10 – Evening temperature recordings with
Figure 2.7 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London 9 3 sites removed .....................................................30
Figure 2.8 – Distribution of car parks in Windsor ... 10 Figure 5.11 – Relationship between evening
Figure 2.9 - Specific Heat Capacity of different temperature and 10um recordings .......................31
Materials ............................................................... 10 Figure 5.12 – Scatter graph for evening 10um and
Figure 3.1 – Equipment.......................................... 11 temperature ..........................................................31
Figure 3.2 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 12 Figure 5.13 – Scatter graph for daytime 10um and
Figure 3.3 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 13 temperature ..........................................................32
Figure 3.4 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 13 Figure 5.14 - Spearman Rank for daytime
Figure 3.5 – Weather 28th October ........................ 14 temperature and 10um recordings ........................33
Figure 3.6 – Weather 28th October ........................ 14 Figure 5.15 - Spearman Rank for all temperature
Figure 3.7 – Weather 28th October ........................ 15 and 10um recordings.............................................33
Figure 4.1 – Planned Route .................................... 16 Figure 5.16 – Daytime humidity recordings ...........34
Figure 4.2 – Transect 1.......................................... 19 Figure 5.17 - Evening humidity recordings .............35
Figure 4.3 – Transect 2 .......................................... 20 Figure 5.18 - Relationship between evening
Figure 4.4 - Transect 3…….……….……………………………21 humidity and temperature ...................................36
Figure 4.5 - Transect 4……………………….….................21 Figure 5.19 - Urban Heat Island of Windsor ..........36
Figure 5.20 - Spearman Rank for evening humidity
recordings and distance from Windsor Castle .......37
1
,Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
Introduction:
Infrastructure such as buildings and roads characterise an urban area, with impermeable
and darker surfaces with lower albedo effects which absorb greater levels of incoming
shortwave solar radiation (insolation). This contributes to urban regions becoming warmer
than their rural surroundings, forming an "island" of higher temperatures in the developed
landscape.
The urban heat island effect is generally more potent in inner-city areas such as the central
business district (CBD), as there is a greater population, so more heat-emitting vehicles,
buildings and tarmac roads, which have a low. On the contrary, rural areas tend to have
more green spaces. This leads to lower surface temperatures as green is ‘shinier’ and more
reflective than black. It also means there are greater levels of evapotranspiration, which
affects another dimension of an urban microclimate – humidity.
The urban heat island effect is present in every developed area, and has a negative
influence on energy consumption. Warmer winters decrease the need for heating, but hotter
summers enormously increase the need for cooling, leading to an overall net increase in
energy consumption. An overall increase in energy consumption leads to greater emissions
and proliferation of climate change; a pressing issue.
Aim
The aims of the investigation are:
1. To consider the effect of pollutants on temperature and the urban heat island of
Windsor.
2. To determine the extent to which humidity varies spatially in an urban area.
How it links to spec
3.2.3.4 – Urban climate
The impact of urban forms and processes on local climate and weather. Urban
temperatures: the urban heat island effect. Precipitation: frequency and intensity. Fogs and
thunderstorms in urban environments. Wind: the effects of urban structures and layout on
wind speed, direction and frequency. Air quality: particulate and photochemical pollution.
The study will focus predominantly on how particulate matter affects the urban temperature
of Windsor, and how humidity varies within the same urban area.
Hypotheses
1. Areas with greater amounts of pollutants present will have higher temperatures
relative to the surrounding environment.
2. Areas closer to the town centre (CBD) will have lower humidity levels.
2
,Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
The temperature of an area correlates to its level
of development, as depicted by figure 1.1. It
shows that rural areas have a much lower
temperature that the central business district
(CBD). Windsor is mostly composed of urban
residential areas, in which the surface temperature
fluctuates. The urban heat island is also affected
diurnally, because of specific heat capacity. Figure
1.1 shows a much clearer relationship between
development and temperature in the night, with an
anomaly around areas of water. During this time,
heat islands are more pronounced, as
infrastructure releases heat. The figure shows that
the CBD always has the highest temperature, and
rural temperatures are always the lowest. Windsor
does not follow the urban pattern outlined in figure
Figure 1.1 – Urban Temperature Variations. Source: 1.1, as it does not contain skyscrapers, however, it
Hodder Education Textbook still has a central business district by Windsor
Castle. It will be interesting to see if it follows
similar patterns, that temperature increases in
more developed areas, which tend to have higher
levels of pollution.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the urban heat island effect in
London from 1st July – 30th September, at 2-3am.
Shows that the temperature variation between
inner-city areas and rural areas in London can
reach up to 6 degrees, despite being so early in
the day. However, there are anomalies, such as
Richmond Park, bottom left that can be up to 1-
degree cooler, suggesting vegetation and the
natural environment can offset the urban heat
island effect, which agrees with figure 1.1. I would
like to see how temperature variation changes on
Figure 1.2 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London.
a smaller scale, and the extent to which vegetation
Source: Hodder Education Textbook offsets the urban heat island effect.
Justification for Hypotheses:
1. Concentrations of pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate
matter are higher along roads and at key transport hubs, such as airports. Figure 1.3
shows that inner-city areas of London have much higher concentrations of NO 2 than
outer areas. This can suggest a correlation between both temperature and pollutants.
However, London is not the best area to explore this correlation, because it will be
affected by numerous other factors, such as altitude.
This graph does not correlate exactly with the urban heat island of London shown in
figure 1.2. For example, Heathrow airport is a large source of nitrogen dioxide, but
the temperature change is not noticeable. This may be because the site itself is too
small to notice, or because there is no relationship between nitrogen dioxide levels
and temperature of the area.
3
, Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
Figure 1.3 - London NO2 Levels. Source: Aviation Environment Federation
The urban heat island of Windsor is impacted by a number of factors, such as
surface water from the River Thames and vegetation, but the study will focus solely
on pollutants and humidity. The CBD of Windsor contains shopping outlets,
supermarkets and many restaurants – making it the busiest area in Windsor. Outer
areas of Windsor, such as Oakley Green, are less densely populated, with less social
services such as schools, so should in theory (from Figure 1.3) have lower levels of
pollutants. Based on Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3, it is expected that an area with lower
levels of pollution, will have a lower temperature. However, there are definite
exceptions to this (such as Heathrow Airport), and Windsor is a much smaller-scale
area than London, so temperature variations may be much less significant.
2. According to Haider Taha’s ‘Urban Climates and Heat Islands; Albedo,
Evapotranspiration, and Anthropogenic Heat,’ relative humidity tends to be lower in
urban areas largely because of the lack of evapotranspiration from vegetation. There
is also increased levels of surface runoff due to impermeable surfaces, and greater
levels of dust and pollutants in busier urban areas can act as condensation nuclei.
Essentially, these condensation nuclei allow water to clot around it, to instigate
rainfall (the transfer of water from the atmosphere to the surface), thus reducing
urban humidity. The process of combustion adds moisture into the atmosphere
offsetting this effect, but it is insignificant.
Figure 1.1 shows that there is a small difference in air temperature between areas
during the day, but a larger difference during the night. As air temperature increases,
the ability for the air to hold more water also increases. This direct relationship will be
explored in the preliminary reading section. Figure 1.4 is another information source
about urban microclimates that states that relative humidity drops in urban areas,
with this more pronounced in summer. It will be interesting to test these theories in
Windsor.
Figure 1.4 – Effect of Urban
Areas on Factors.
Source: Hodder Education
Textbook
4
Investigation into how humidity and pollutants vary in Windsor, and the effect of
pollutants on the urban heat island
Contents
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Preliminary Reading ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Planned Route: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Actual Route .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data ............................................................................................................................... 24
Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 – Urban Temperature Variations ............. 3 Figure 4.6 – Actual Routes .....................................22
Figure 1.2 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London 3 Figure 4.7 – Changes to Planned Route .................23
Figure 1.3 - London NO2 Levels ............................... 4 Table 1 – All Data Collected ...................................24
Figure 1.4 – Effect of Urban Areas on Factors .......... 4 Figure 5.1 – Photograph of Royal Windsor Way .....26
Figure 2.1 – Rizwan Ahmed, factors affecting urban Figure 5.2 – Daytime 10um recordings ..................26
heat islands ............................................................. 5 Figure 5.3 – Daytime 2.5um recordings .................27
Figure 2.2 – Relationship between Altitude and Figure 5.4 – Photograph of St Leonards Hill,
Temperature ........................................................... 6 Illingworth .............................................................27
Figure 2.3 – Relationship between Humidity and Figure 5.5 – Evening 10um recordings .................28
Temperature ........................................................... 7 Figure 5.6 – Daytime temperature recordings .......28
Figure 2.4 – Location of Windsor ............................. 8 Figure 5.7 – Photograph of Aston Mead ...............29
Figure 2.5 – Area of Data Collection in Windsor ....... 8 Figure 5.8 – Photograph of Oakley Green .............29
Figure 2.6 – Map and Scale of London compared to Figure 5.9 – Evening temperature recordings ........29
Windsor................................................................... 9 Figure 5.10 – Evening temperature recordings with
Figure 2.7 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London 9 3 sites removed .....................................................30
Figure 2.8 – Distribution of car parks in Windsor ... 10 Figure 5.11 – Relationship between evening
Figure 2.9 - Specific Heat Capacity of different temperature and 10um recordings .......................31
Materials ............................................................... 10 Figure 5.12 – Scatter graph for evening 10um and
Figure 3.1 – Equipment.......................................... 11 temperature ..........................................................31
Figure 3.2 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 12 Figure 5.13 – Scatter graph for daytime 10um and
Figure 3.3 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 13 temperature ..........................................................32
Figure 3.4 – Weather 22nd October ........................ 13 Figure 5.14 - Spearman Rank for daytime
Figure 3.5 – Weather 28th October ........................ 14 temperature and 10um recordings ........................33
Figure 3.6 – Weather 28th October ........................ 14 Figure 5.15 - Spearman Rank for all temperature
Figure 3.7 – Weather 28th October ........................ 15 and 10um recordings.............................................33
Figure 4.1 – Planned Route .................................... 16 Figure 5.16 – Daytime humidity recordings ...........34
Figure 4.2 – Transect 1.......................................... 19 Figure 5.17 - Evening humidity recordings .............35
Figure 4.3 – Transect 2 .......................................... 20 Figure 5.18 - Relationship between evening
Figure 4.4 - Transect 3…….……….……………………………21 humidity and temperature ...................................36
Figure 4.5 - Transect 4……………………….….................21 Figure 5.19 - Urban Heat Island of Windsor ..........36
Figure 5.20 - Spearman Rank for evening humidity
recordings and distance from Windsor Castle .......37
1
,Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
Introduction:
Infrastructure such as buildings and roads characterise an urban area, with impermeable
and darker surfaces with lower albedo effects which absorb greater levels of incoming
shortwave solar radiation (insolation). This contributes to urban regions becoming warmer
than their rural surroundings, forming an "island" of higher temperatures in the developed
landscape.
The urban heat island effect is generally more potent in inner-city areas such as the central
business district (CBD), as there is a greater population, so more heat-emitting vehicles,
buildings and tarmac roads, which have a low. On the contrary, rural areas tend to have
more green spaces. This leads to lower surface temperatures as green is ‘shinier’ and more
reflective than black. It also means there are greater levels of evapotranspiration, which
affects another dimension of an urban microclimate – humidity.
The urban heat island effect is present in every developed area, and has a negative
influence on energy consumption. Warmer winters decrease the need for heating, but hotter
summers enormously increase the need for cooling, leading to an overall net increase in
energy consumption. An overall increase in energy consumption leads to greater emissions
and proliferation of climate change; a pressing issue.
Aim
The aims of the investigation are:
1. To consider the effect of pollutants on temperature and the urban heat island of
Windsor.
2. To determine the extent to which humidity varies spatially in an urban area.
How it links to spec
3.2.3.4 – Urban climate
The impact of urban forms and processes on local climate and weather. Urban
temperatures: the urban heat island effect. Precipitation: frequency and intensity. Fogs and
thunderstorms in urban environments. Wind: the effects of urban structures and layout on
wind speed, direction and frequency. Air quality: particulate and photochemical pollution.
The study will focus predominantly on how particulate matter affects the urban temperature
of Windsor, and how humidity varies within the same urban area.
Hypotheses
1. Areas with greater amounts of pollutants present will have higher temperatures
relative to the surrounding environment.
2. Areas closer to the town centre (CBD) will have lower humidity levels.
2
,Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
The temperature of an area correlates to its level
of development, as depicted by figure 1.1. It
shows that rural areas have a much lower
temperature that the central business district
(CBD). Windsor is mostly composed of urban
residential areas, in which the surface temperature
fluctuates. The urban heat island is also affected
diurnally, because of specific heat capacity. Figure
1.1 shows a much clearer relationship between
development and temperature in the night, with an
anomaly around areas of water. During this time,
heat islands are more pronounced, as
infrastructure releases heat. The figure shows that
the CBD always has the highest temperature, and
rural temperatures are always the lowest. Windsor
does not follow the urban pattern outlined in figure
Figure 1.1 – Urban Temperature Variations. Source: 1.1, as it does not contain skyscrapers, however, it
Hodder Education Textbook still has a central business district by Windsor
Castle. It will be interesting to see if it follows
similar patterns, that temperature increases in
more developed areas, which tend to have higher
levels of pollution.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the urban heat island effect in
London from 1st July – 30th September, at 2-3am.
Shows that the temperature variation between
inner-city areas and rural areas in London can
reach up to 6 degrees, despite being so early in
the day. However, there are anomalies, such as
Richmond Park, bottom left that can be up to 1-
degree cooler, suggesting vegetation and the
natural environment can offset the urban heat
island effect, which agrees with figure 1.1. I would
like to see how temperature variation changes on
Figure 1.2 – Simplified Urban Heat Island of London.
a smaller scale, and the extent to which vegetation
Source: Hodder Education Textbook offsets the urban heat island effect.
Justification for Hypotheses:
1. Concentrations of pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate
matter are higher along roads and at key transport hubs, such as airports. Figure 1.3
shows that inner-city areas of London have much higher concentrations of NO 2 than
outer areas. This can suggest a correlation between both temperature and pollutants.
However, London is not the best area to explore this correlation, because it will be
affected by numerous other factors, such as altitude.
This graph does not correlate exactly with the urban heat island of London shown in
figure 1.2. For example, Heathrow airport is a large source of nitrogen dioxide, but
the temperature change is not noticeable. This may be because the site itself is too
small to notice, or because there is no relationship between nitrogen dioxide levels
and temperature of the area.
3
, Dhiran Bains – Geography NEA
Figure 1.3 - London NO2 Levels. Source: Aviation Environment Federation
The urban heat island of Windsor is impacted by a number of factors, such as
surface water from the River Thames and vegetation, but the study will focus solely
on pollutants and humidity. The CBD of Windsor contains shopping outlets,
supermarkets and many restaurants – making it the busiest area in Windsor. Outer
areas of Windsor, such as Oakley Green, are less densely populated, with less social
services such as schools, so should in theory (from Figure 1.3) have lower levels of
pollutants. Based on Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3, it is expected that an area with lower
levels of pollution, will have a lower temperature. However, there are definite
exceptions to this (such as Heathrow Airport), and Windsor is a much smaller-scale
area than London, so temperature variations may be much less significant.
2. According to Haider Taha’s ‘Urban Climates and Heat Islands; Albedo,
Evapotranspiration, and Anthropogenic Heat,’ relative humidity tends to be lower in
urban areas largely because of the lack of evapotranspiration from vegetation. There
is also increased levels of surface runoff due to impermeable surfaces, and greater
levels of dust and pollutants in busier urban areas can act as condensation nuclei.
Essentially, these condensation nuclei allow water to clot around it, to instigate
rainfall (the transfer of water from the atmosphere to the surface), thus reducing
urban humidity. The process of combustion adds moisture into the atmosphere
offsetting this effect, but it is insignificant.
Figure 1.1 shows that there is a small difference in air temperature between areas
during the day, but a larger difference during the night. As air temperature increases,
the ability for the air to hold more water also increases. This direct relationship will be
explored in the preliminary reading section. Figure 1.4 is another information source
about urban microclimates that states that relative humidity drops in urban areas,
with this more pronounced in summer. It will be interesting to test these theories in
Windsor.
Figure 1.4 – Effect of Urban
Areas on Factors.
Source: Hodder Education
Textbook
4
